Article #132-1 | Gutenberg Articles

Excerpt

Excerpt from The Art of War, by active 6th century B.C. Sunzi

Accustomed as we are to think of China as the greatest peace-loving
nation on earth, we are in some danger of forgetting that her
experience of war in all its phases has also been such as no modern
State can parallel. Her long military annals stretch back to a point at
which they are lost in the mists of time. She had built the Great Wall
and was maintaining a huge standing army along her frontier centuries
before the first Roman legionary was seen on the Danube. What with the
perpetual collisions of the ancient feudal States, the grim conflicts
with Huns, Turks and other invaders after the centralization of
government, the terrific upheavals which accompanied the overthrow of
so many dynasties, besides the countless rebellions and minor
disturbances that have flamed up and flickered out again one by one, it
is hardly too much to say that the clash of arms has never ceased to
resound in one portion or another of the Empire.

No less remarkable is the succession of illustrious captains to whom
China can point with pride. As in all countries, the greatest are fond
of emerging at the most fateful crises of her history. Thus, Po Ch’i
stands out conspicuous in the period when Ch’in was entering upon her
final struggle with the remaining independent states. The stormy years
which followed the break-up of the Ch’in dynasty are illuminated by the
transcendent genius of Han Hsin. When the House of Han in turn is
tottering to its fall, the great and baleful figure of Ts’ao Ts’ao
dominates the scene. And in the establishment of the T’ang dynasty, one
of the mightiest tasks achieved by man, the superhuman energy of Li
Shih-min (afterwards the Emperor T’ai Tsung) was seconded by the
brilliant strategy of Li Ching. None of these generals need fear
comparison with the greatest names in the military history of Europe.

In spite of all this, the great body of Chinese sentiment, from Lao Tzŭ
downwards, and especially as reflected in the standard literature of
Confucianism, has been consistently pacific and intensely opposed to
militarism in any form. It is such an uncommon thing to find any of the
literati defending warfare on principle, that I have thought it worth
while to collect and translate a few passages in which the unorthodox
view is upheld. The following, by Ssu-ma Ch’ien, shows that for all his
ardent admiration of Confucius, he was yet no advocate of peace at any
price:—

Explanation

This excerpt from the introduction to The Art of War (attributed to Sunzi, or Sun Tzu, a 6th–5th century BCE Chinese military strategist) serves as a historical and philosophical preamble to the text, framing China’s complex relationship with war, militarism, and strategic thought. Below is a detailed breakdown of the passage, focusing on its context, themes, literary devices, and significance, with an emphasis on close textual analysis.

1. Context of the Excerpt

This passage is likely from the preface or introductory commentary of a translation of The Art of War (possibly Lionel Giles’ 1910 English translation, one of the most influential). The excerpt:

Contrasts China’s peaceful reputation with its long, brutal history of warfare.
Highlights legendary military figures to underscore China’s martial tradition.
Introduces a philosophical tension: Despite China’s military prowess, its dominant intellectual tradition (Confucianism, Daoism) rejects militarism.
Sets up Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s (Sima Qian) dissenting view as a counterpoint to pacifist orthodoxy.

The Art of War itself is a military treatise on strategy, deception, and psychology, but this introduction broadens the scope to China’s cultural and historical relationship with war.

2. Themes in the Excerpt

A. The Paradox of China’s Military History vs. Pacifist Ideology

The passage opens with a juxtaposition:

"Accustomed as we are to think of China as the greatest peace-loving nation on earth, we are in some danger of forgetting that her experience of war in all its phases has also been such as no modern State can parallel."

Irony: China is stereotyped as peaceful (e.g., Confucian harmony, Daoist non-aggression), yet its history is defined by near-constant warfare.
Historical Scope: The text lists feudal wars, invasions (Huns, Turks), dynastic collapses, and rebellions—suggesting war is inevitable in Chinese history.
Purpose: This sets up The Art of War as not just a manual for generals, but a necessary response to an inescapable reality.

B. The Cult of the Military Genius

The passage elevates legendary generals to near-mythic status:

"No less remarkable is the succession of illustrious captains... Po Ch’i, Han Hsin, Ts’ao Ts’ao, Li Shih-min, Li Ching."

Heroic Narrative: Each general is tied to a pivotal historical crisis (e.g., Han Hsin’s role in the Han dynasty’s rise).
Comparison to Europe: The claim that these figures "need fear no comparison" with European generals (e.g., Napoleon, Alexander) asserts China’s military superiority in strategic thought.
Implication: Greatness in war is not just about brute force but intellectual mastery—a key theme in The Art of War.

C. The Conflict Between Militarism and Confucian Pacifism

The passage then shifts to philosophy:

"In spite of all this, the great body of Chinese sentiment... has been consistently pacific and intensely opposed to militarism."

Confucianism’s Rejection of War: Confucius (551–479 BCE) and later scholars prioritized moral governance, ritual, and harmony over military conquest.
Daoism’s Anti-War Stance: Laozi (Dao De Jing) famously said, "Weapons are tools of ill omen" (Ch. 31).
The "Unorthodox" View: The introduction frames Ssu-ma Ch’ien (145–86 BCE)—the grand historian of the Records of the Grand Historian—as a dissenting voice who justifies war when necessary.

D. Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Pragmatic Justification of War

The excerpt teases Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s argument (not fully quoted here) that:

Peace at any price is naive.
War can be a necessary evil for survival or justice.
This foreshadows Sunzi’s own philosophy: War is not glorious but inevitable, and thus must be mastered strategically to minimize bloodshed.

3. Literary Devices & Rhetorical Strategies

Device	Example from Text	Effect
Juxtaposition	"peace-loving nation" vs. "clash of arms has never ceased"	Highlights the paradox of China’s identity.
Hyperbole	"no modern State can parallel"	Emphasizes the unmatched scale of China’s military history.
Allusion	References to Po Ch’i, Han Hsin, Ts’ao Ts’ao	Invokes legendary status to lend authority.
Parallelism	"the perpetual collisions... the grim conflicts... the terrific upheavals"	Creates a rhythmic, cumulative effect of relentless war.
Antithesis	"consistently pacific" vs. "unorthodox view"	Contrasts dominant ideology with dissenting pragmatism.
Foreshadowing	Mention of Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s pro-war argument	Prepares reader for The Art of War’s utilitarian view of conflict.

4. Significance of the Passage

**A. Framing The Art of War as a Necessary Text**

The introduction justifies the existence of a military treatise in a culture that ideologically rejects war.
It suggests that strategy is not about glorifying war but controlling it—a core Sunzian principle ("The supreme art of war is to subdue the enemy without fighting").

B. Challenging Western Perceptions of China

The passage pushes back against Orientalist stereotypes of China as purely peaceful or passive.
By listing China’s military achievements, it asserts a counter-narrative of strategic brilliance.

C. The Tension Between Idealism and Realism

Confucianism and Daoism represent moral idealism (war is evil).
Ssu-ma Ch’ien and Sunzi represent strategic realism (war is inevitable; better to master it).
This tension mirrors debates in political philosophy (e.g., Machiavelli vs. humanists).

D. Historical Legacy of the Text

The excerpt hints at why The Art of War endured: It’s not just a manual but a philosophical meditation on power, conflict, and human nature.
Its pragmatism explains its influence beyond military circles (e.g., business, politics, psychology).

5. Close Reading of Key Lines

"the clash of arms has never ceased to resound in one portion or another of the Empire"
- Imagery: "Clash of arms" is auditory and violent, reinforcing war’s inescapability.
- Scope: "One portion or another" suggests war is constant but localized—a cycle, not an aberration.
"the great and baleful figure of Ts’ao Ts’ao"
- Diction: "Baleful" (threatening, evil) complicates the heroism—Ts’ao Ts’ao was brilliant but ruthless (a theme in Romance of the Three Kingdoms).
- Implication: Greatness in war is morally ambiguous.
"the unorthodox view is upheld"
- Framing: Positions Ssu-ma Ch’ien (and by extension, Sunzi) as heretical but necessary voices in a pacifist tradition.

**6. Connection to The Art of War’s Core Ideas**

The excerpt previews Sunzi’s key themes:

War as a Last Resort: Like Ssu-ma Ch’ien, Sunzi does not celebrate war but accepts its necessity.
Strategy Over Strength: The focus on generals’ "genius" aligns with Sunzi’s emphasis on deception, adaptability, and psychological warfare.
The Cost of War: The passage’s somber tone reflects Sunzi’s warning that war drains resources and should be swift.

7. Conclusion: Why This Matters

This introduction is not just historical context—it’s a philosophical defense of The Art of War’s existence. It argues that:

War is a recurring reality in human history.
Military genius is a legitimate form of intellectual achievement.
Pragmatism must balance idealism—even in a culture that values peace.

By framing the text this way, the translator (likely Giles) positions The Art of War as more than a manual: it’s a meditation on the human condition, where conflict is inevitable, and wisdom lies in mastering it rather than denying it.

Would you like a deeper dive into any specific aspect (e.g., Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s arguments, Sunzi’s strategies, or the historical figures mentioned)?

Questions

Question 1

The passage’s depiction of China’s military history serves primarily to:

A. glorify the martial achievements of ancient Chinese generals as unparalleled in global history.
B. contrast the practical necessity of warfare with the idealistic pacifism of Confucian and Daoist thought.
C. establish an irreconcilable tension between China’s self-perception as a peace-loving nation and its empirical record of perpetual conflict.
D. demonstrate that China’s strategic brilliance is rooted in its unique geographical vulnerabilities to invasion.
E. argue that militarism, despite its moral ambiguities, is the defining characteristic of Chinese civilization.

Question 2

The author’s reference to Ts’ao Ts’ao as a "great and baleful figure" is most effectively interpreted as:

A. an objective historical assessment of his ambiguous legacy as both a unifier and a tyrant.
B. a rhetorical device to underscore the moral complexity inherent in military genius.
C. a subtle critique of Confucian historiography for its failure to acknowledge ruthless but effective leaders.
D. an ironic juxtaposition of his strategic brilliance with the ultimate failure of his dynasty.
E. a concession to Western perspectives that often vilify non-European military leaders.

Question 3

The passage’s structure—moving from historical enumeration to philosophical reflection—most closely mirrors which of the following argumentative strategies?

A. Inductive reasoning, building from specific examples to a general conclusion about the inevitability of war.
B. Dialectical progression, presenting a thesis (China’s militarism), antithesis (pacifist tradition), and synthesizing tension (Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s pragmatism).
C. Rhetorical amplification, exaggerating China’s military history to underscore its cultural uniqueness.
D. Teleological argument, suggesting that China’s wars were necessary for its eventual philosophical maturation.
E. Ad hominem framing, dismissing Confucian pacifism as impractical by highlighting its contradictions.

Question 4

The phrase "the clash of arms has never ceased to resound" functions primarily as:

A. a metaphorical indictment of China’s failure to achieve lasting peace despite its philosophical ideals.
B. an auditory image intended to evoke the sensory reality of war for the reader.
C. a historical claim that China’s wars were uniquely continuous compared to intermittent European conflicts.
D. a transitional device linking the discussion of military history to the introduction of Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s dissent.
E. a thematic motif reinforcing the passage’s central argument that war is an inescapable condition of human existence.

Question 5

Which of the following best describes the passage’s implicit stance on the relationship between military strategy and moral philosophy?

A. Strategic mastery is a morally neutral tool that can serve either just or unjust ends, depending on the leader’s intent.
B. The pursuit of military excellence is inherently corrupting, as evidenced by the "baleful" nature of figures like Ts’ao Ts’ao.
C. Confucian pacifism is intellectually inconsistent because it fails to provide viable alternatives to warfare.
D. China’s philosophical traditions have systematically suppressed discussions of military strategy due to ethical objections.
E. The tension between militarism and pacifism is resolvable only through a synthesis of Sunzi’s pragmatism and Confucian ethics.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: C

Why C is most correct: The passage explicitly opens with the contrast between China’s reputation as "the greatest peace-loving nation" and its "experience of war in all its phases," which is described as unparalleled. The phrase "we are in some danger of forgetting" suggests a disjunction between self-perception and historical reality, and the subsequent enumeration of wars, invasions, and rebellions reinforces this as an irreconcilable tension. The passage does not seek to resolve this contradiction but to highlight it as a framing device for The Art of War.