Appearance
Excerpt
Excerpt from Essays and Lectures, by Oscar Wilde
L’esprit d’un siècle ne naît pas et ne meurt pas à jour fixe, and the
first critic is perhaps as difficult to discover as the first man. It is
from democracy that the spirit of criticism borrows its intolerance of
dogmatic authority, from physical science the alluring analogies of law
and order, from philosophy the conception of an essential unity
underlying the complex manifestations of phenomena. It appears first
rather as a changed attitude of mind than as a principle of research, and
its earliest influences are to be found in the sacred writings.
For men begin to doubt in questions of religion first, and then in
matters of more secular interest; and as regards the nature of the spirit
of historical criticism itself in its ultimate development, it is not
confined merely to the empirical method of ascertaining whether an event
happened or not, but is concerned also with the investigation into the
causes of events, the general relations which phenomena of life hold to
one another, and in its ultimate development passes into the wider
question of the philosophy of history.
Now, while the workings of historical criticism in these two spheres of
sacred and uninspired history are essentially manifestations of the same
spirit, yet their methods are so different, the canons of evidence so
entirely separate, and the motives in each case so unconnected, that it
will be necessary for a clear estimation of the progress of Greek
thought, that we should consider these two questions entirely apart from
one another. I shall then in both cases take the succession of writers
in their chronological order as representing the rational order—not that
the succession of time is always the succession of ideas, or that
dialectics moves ever in the straight line in which Hegel conceives its
advance. In Greek thought, as elsewhere, there are periods of stagnation
and apparent retrogression, yet their intellectual development, not
merely in the question of historical criticism, but in their art, their
poetry and their philosophy, seems so essentially normal, so free from
all disturbing external influences, so peculiarly rational, that in
following in the footsteps of time we shall really be progressing in the
order sanctioned by reason.
Explanation
Detailed Explanation of Oscar Wilde’s Excerpt from Essays and Lectures
This passage is from Oscar Wilde’s critical writings, likely part of his Oxford-era essays (though not published in his lifetime under his name). Wilde, known primarily as a playwright, poet, and wit, was also a sharp literary and cultural critic, deeply influenced by Walter Pater, John Ruskin, and the Aesthetic Movement, as well as Greek philosophy, German idealism (Hegel), and French critical thought. This excerpt reflects his engagement with historical criticism, the evolution of intellectual thought, and the nature of skepticism—themes central to 19th-century debates on faith, science, and historical methodology.
The passage is dense and philosophical, blending historical analysis, epistemology (theory of knowledge), and cultural critique. Below is a breakdown of its key ideas, literary devices, and significance, with a focus on the text itself.
1. Context & Overview
Wilde is discussing the emergence of historical criticism—a method of questioning and analyzing texts (especially religious and historical ones) that arose in ancient Greece and evolved into modern scholarly practices. He frames this as a shift in human consciousness, not just a methodological change.
The opening line, in French—"L’esprit d’un siècle ne naît pas et ne meurt pas à jour fixe" ("The spirit of an age is not born and does not die on a fixed day")—sets the tone: intellectual movements are organic, not rigidly periodic. This reflects Wilde’s anti-dogmatic, fluid view of history, resisting strict teleological (goal-directed) narratives like Hegel’s.
2. Key Themes & Arguments
A. The Birth of Critical Thought
- Wilde argues that historical criticism (the systematic questioning of texts, events, and traditions) does not have a single origin but emerges gradually from broader cultural shifts.
- It is not just a method but a "changed attitude of mind"—a new way of engaging with the world, first appearing in religious doubt before spreading to secular matters.
- The three sources of this critical spirit:
- Democracy → Rejection of dogmatic authority (e.g., questioning priests, kings, or traditional narratives).
- Physical science → The idea of laws and order in nature, which critics then apply to human history.
- Philosophy → The search for unity beneath complexity (e.g., seeing patterns in history, like cycles or causes).
B. The Two Spheres of Historical Criticism
Wilde distinguishes between:
- Sacred history (e.g., the Bible, myths, religious texts) → Criticism here starts with doubt about divine narratives.
- Secular history (e.g., political, cultural, or scientific records) → Later extends to questioning human events.
Though both stem from the same skeptical spirit, their methods differ:
- Sacred criticism deals with faith, revelation, and tradition (e.g., "Did Moses write the Pentateuch?").
- Secular criticism deals with empirical evidence (e.g., "Did the Trojan War happen?").
C. The Nature of Intellectual Progress
- Wilde rejects Hegel’s linear view of history (where ideas progress in a straight, logical march).
- Instead, he sees stagnation, retrogression, and irregularity in Greek thought—yet still finds an underlying rationality.
- His claim: "In following time, we follow reason" suggests that chronological order often reflects logical development, but not always.
3. Literary & Rhetorical Devices
Wilde’s prose is ornate, paradoxical, and layered, typical of his style. Key devices include:
A. Parallelism & Antithesis
- "It appears first rather as a changed attitude of mind than as a principle of research" → Contrasts subjective shift vs. objective method.
- "Not that the succession of time is always the succession of ideas" → Balances chronology against conceptual progress.
B. Allusion & Intertextuality
- Hegel’s dialectics → Wilde critiques the idea that history moves in a straight, logical line.
- Greek thought → References the pre-Socratics, Sophists, and later philosophers who pioneered skepticism.
- Biblical criticism → Implies the Higher Criticism movement (19th-century scholarly analysis of the Bible as a historical text).
C. Metaphor & Analogy
- "The spirit of criticism borrows its intolerance of dogmatic authority from democracy" → Personifies criticism as a living entity that absorbs traits from other fields.
- "The wider question of the philosophy of history" → Frames historical criticism as part of a larger existential inquiry.
D. Irony & Understatement
- "The first critic is perhaps as difficult to discover as the first man" → Humorously suggests that criticism is as old as humanity itself, yet its origins are obscure.
4. Significance & Wilde’s Broader Ideas
This passage reflects several of Wilde’s intellectual and aesthetic concerns:
A. Skepticism & Anti-Dogmatism
- Wilde, like many Victorian intellectuals, was fascinated by doubt as a creative force.
- He later explored this in plays like The Importance of Being Earnest (where truth is fluid) and essays like The Decay of Lying (where art, not reality, is supreme).
B. The Greek Ideal
- Wilde admired Greek culture for its balance of reason and beauty.
- Here, he praises Greek thought as "so peculiarly rational"—free from external distortions (unlike, say, medieval scholasticism).
C. The Role of the Critic
- Wilde saw the critic as an artist, not just a scholar.
- This passage foreshadows his later idea (in The Critic as Artist) that criticism is a creative act, not just analysis.
D. History as a Construct
- The excerpt suggests that history is not fixed but interpreted—a radical idea for the 19th century.
- This aligns with modern historiography, which sees history as narrative, not absolute truth.
5. Line-by-Line Breakdown of Key Sections
Opening Sentence:
"L’esprit d’un siècle ne naît pas et ne meurt pas à jour fixe, and the first critic is perhaps as difficult to discover as the first man."
- French phrase → Emphasizes that cultural shifts are organic, not mechanically scheduled.
- "First critic vs. first man" → Suggests criticism is innate to human nature, not a later invention.
Sources of Critical Spirit:
"It is from democracy that the spirit of criticism borrows its intolerance of dogmatic authority, from physical science the alluring analogies of law and order, from philosophy the conception of an essential unity underlying the complex manifestations of phenomena."
- Democracy → Rejection of authority (e.g., questioning kings, priests).
- Science → Patterns and laws (applying scientific method to history).
- Philosophy → Unity in diversity (seeking hidden connections in events).
Religious vs. Secular Criticism:
"For men begin to doubt in questions of religion first, and then in matters of more secular interest..."
- Psychological insight: People question sacred things before mundane ones because faith is more emotionally charged.
- Historical observation: Biblical criticism (e.g., Spinoza, German scholars) predated modern historical methods.
Hegel Critique:
"Not that the succession of time is always the succession of ideas, or that dialectics moves ever in the straight line in which Hegel conceives its advance."
- Rejection of teleology: History doesn’t always "progress" logically.
- Greek thought as "normal": Unlike Hegel’s German idealism, Wilde sees Greek intellect as organic, not forced into a system.
6. Conclusion: Why This Matters
This passage is not just about historical method—it’s about:
- How doubt shapes civilization (from religion to science).
- The critic’s role in challenging authority (a theme Wilde embodied in his life and trials).
- The fluidity of truth (later central to postmodern thought).
Wilde’s elegant, provocative prose makes a philosophical argument feel like art, blending scholarship with wit. His ideas here anticipate modern debates on historiography, skepticism, and the nature of criticism—proving that even in academic writing, Wilde was ahead of his time.
Final Thought:
If Wilde’s later works (The Picture of Dorian Gray, De Profundis) explore aesthetic and moral paradoxes, this excerpt shows his intellectual foundation—a belief that questioning is as creative as answering, and that history, like art, is a matter of perspective.