Appearance
Excerpt
Excerpt from Creatures That Once Were Men, by Maksim Gorky
INTRODUCTORY.
By G. K. CHESTERTON.
It is certainly a curious fact that so many of the voices of what is
called our modern religion have come from countries which are not only
simple, but may even be called barbaric. A nation like Norway has a
great realistic drama without having ever had either a great classical
drama or a great romantic drama. A nation like Russia makes us feel
its modern fiction when we have never felt its ancient fiction. It has
produced its Gissing without producing its Scott. Everything that is
most sad and scientific, everything that is most grim and analytical,
everything that can truly be called most modern, everything that can
without unreasonableness be called most morbid, comes from these fresh
and untried and unexhausted nationalities. Out of these infant peoples
come the oldest voices of the earth. This contradiction, like many
other contradictions, is one which ought first of all to be registered
as a mere fact; long before we attempt to explain why things contradict
themselves, we ought, if we are honest men and good critics, to
register the preliminary truth that things do contradict themselves.
In this case, as I say, there are many possible and suggestive
explanations. It may be, to take an example, that our modern Europe is
so exhausted that even the vigorous expression of that exhaustion is
difficult for every one except the most robust. It may be that all the
nations are tired; and it may be that only the boldest and breeziest
are not too tired to say that they are tired. It may be that a man
like Ibsen in Norway or a man like Gorky in Russia are the only people
left who have so much faith that they can really believe in scepticism.
It may be that they are the only people left who have so much animal
spirits that they can really feast high and drink deep at the ancient
banquet of pessimism. This is one of the possible hypotheses or
explanations in the matter: that all Europe feels these things and that
they only have strength to believe them also. Many other explanations
might, however, also be offered. It might be suggested that
half-barbaric countries like Russia or Norway, which have always lain,
to say the least of it, on the extreme edge of the circle of our
European civilisation, have a certain primal melancholy which belongs
to them through all the ages. It is highly probable that this sadness,
which to us is modern, is to them eternal. It is highly probable that
what we have solemnly and suddenly discovered in scientific text-books
and philosophical magazines they absorbed and experienced thousands of
years ago, when they offered human sacrifice in black and cruel forests
and cried to their gods in the dark. Their agnosticism is perhaps
merely paganism; their paganism, as in old times, is merely
devilworship. Certainly, Schopenhauer could hardly have written his
hideous essay on women except in a country which had once been full of
slavery and the service of fiends. It may be that these moderns are
tricking us altogether, and are hiding in their current scientific
jargon things that they knew before science or civilisation were. They
say that they are determinists; but the truth is, probably, that they
are still worshipping the Norns. They say that they describe scenes
which are sickening and dehumanising in the name of art or in the name
of truth; but it may be that they do it in the name of some deity
indescribable, whom they propitiated with blood and terror before the
beginning of history.
Explanation
Detailed Explanation of G.K. Chesterton’s Introductory Essay to Creatures That Once Were Men by Maksim Gorky
This excerpt is the introduction written by G.K. Chesterton (1874–1936) for Maksim Gorky’s (1868–1936) short story collection Creatures That Once Were Men (1905). Chesterton, a prominent English writer, critic, and Christian apologist, was known for his paradoxical wit, conservative cultural critiques, and defense of traditional values against modernist pessimism. Gorky, a leading Russian writer and socialist realist, was celebrated (and sometimes controversial) for his grim, naturalistic depictions of the underclass.
Chesterton’s introduction does not directly analyze Gorky’s stories but instead reflects on the broader cultural and philosophical significance of modern Russian and Scandinavian literature, particularly their pessimistic, deterministic, and "barbaric" tendencies. Below is a breakdown of the passage’s key ideas, themes, literary devices, and significance, with a focus on the text itself.
1. Central Thesis: The Paradox of "Modern" Pessimism from "Barbaric" Nations
Chesterton opens with a provocative observation:
"It is certainly a curious fact that so many of the voices of what is called our modern religion have come from countries which are not only simple, but may even be called barbaric."
His argument hinges on a paradox:
- Modern literary pessimism (skepticism, determinism, existential despair) is often associated with highly industrialized, "exhausted" Western Europe (e.g., France, Germany, England).
- Yet, the most vocal and influential expressions of this pessimism come from "barbaric" or "half-barbaric" nations like Russia and Norway—countries that, in Chesterton’s view, are less "civilized" in the traditional Western sense.
He lists examples:
- Norway produced Henrik Ibsen (a playwright known for bleak, realistic dramas) without first developing a classical or romantic dramatic tradition (unlike, say, Shakespeare or Schiller).
- Russia produced Gorky’s naturalistic fiction without an established ancient literary heritage (unlike England’s Scott or Dickens).
This leads to his central question: Why do these "young," "untried" nations produce the most extreme forms of modern despair?
2. Possible Explanations for the Paradox
Chesterton offers three main hypotheses (though he does not fully endorse any):
A. The Exhaustion Hypothesis: Only the Strong Can Admit Weakness
"It may be that our modern Europe is so exhausted that even the vigorous expression of that exhaustion is difficult for every one except the most robust... that all Europe feels these things and that they only have strength to believe them also."
- Western Europe is spiritually and culturally exhausted (post-Industrial Revolution, post-Enlightenment disillusionment).
- Russia and Norway, being less "civilized," are not yet worn out—they still have the energy to articulate despair while older nations lack even the strength to express their fatigue.
- Analogy: A dying man may be too weak to scream, but a healthier man can still shout about death.
B. The Primal Melancholy Hypothesis: Their Sadness is Ancient, Not Modern
"It is highly probable that this sadness, which to us is modern, is to them eternal... that what we have solemnly and suddenly discovered in scientific text-books and philosophical magazines they absorbed and experienced thousands of years ago."
- Russian/Norwegian pessimism is not a new, intellectual fashion (like Schopenhauer’s philosophy) but a deep, ancient, pagan despair.
- These nations have always been melancholic—their pre-Christian, "barbaric" past (human sacrifice, dark forests, devil-worship) instilled a permanent existential dread.
- Example: Schopenhauer’s misogyny (in On Women) seems to Chesterton like a relic of old Slavic brutality, not a modern philosophical insight.
C. The Deceptive Modernity Hypothesis: They’re Hiding Old Superstitions in New Language
"They say that they are determinists; but the truth is, probably, that they are still worshipping the Norns. They say that they describe scenes which are sickening and dehumanising in the name of art or in the name of truth; but it may be that they do it in the name of some deity indescribable."
- Russian and Norwegian writers claim to be scientific, deterministic, and "modern" (e.g., Gorky’s naturalism, Ibsen’s social realism).
- But Chesterton suggests they are merely repackaging ancient paganism in secular terms:
- "Determinism" = Fate (the Norns in Norse mythology).
- "Artistic truth" = Blood sacrifice to old gods.
- Their apparent modernity is a mask for primitive, superstitious worldviews.
3. Literary Devices & Rhetorical Strategies
Chesterton’s prose is rich in paradox, irony, and provocative imagery. Key devices include:
A. Paradox & Contrast
- "Infant peoples" vs. "oldest voices" → Young nations speak with ancient wisdom.
- "Modern religion" vs. "barbaric countries" → The most "advanced" ideas come from the least "civilized" places.
- "Faith in skepticism" → Believing in disbelief is itself an act of faith.
B. Historical & Mythological Allusions
- Norse mythology (the Norns) → Fate as an ancient, not modern, concept.
- Pagan devil-worship → Suggests that modern pessimism is just old superstition in new clothes.
- Schopenhauer’s misogyny → Linked to pre-Christian brutality, not Enlightenment thought.
C. Irony & Sarcasm
- "Ancient banquet of pessimism" → Mocks the idea that despair is a feast (something enjoyable or indulgent).
- "Scientific text-books and philosophical magazines" → Dismissive of intellectual fashion, implying that these nations knew despair long before academics did.
D. Repetition for Emphasis
- "Everything that is most sad and scientific, everything that is most grim and analytical..." → Builds a cumulative effect, emphasizing the extreme nature of this literature.
4. Themes & Philosophical Implications
Chesterton’s introduction touches on several broader themes:
A. The Illusion of Modernity
- What seems "modern" (determinism, existentialism, naturalism) may actually be very old—just rebranded.
- Progress is cyclical: The "new" pessimism of the 19th/20th century is just pagan fatalism in disguise.
B. The Limits of Civilization
- "Barbaric" nations are closer to primal truths than "civilized" ones.
- Over-civilization leads to weakness (Europe is too tired to even express its despair), while less "refined" cultures still have the vitality to confront darkness.
C. The Danger of Secularized Superstition
- Science and philosophy can become new forms of idolatrous worship.
- Determinism is just Fate rebranded; naturalism is just paganism without gods.
D. The Role of the Artist as Prophet or Priest
- Writers like Gorky and Ibsen are not just observers but high priests of a new/old religion of despair.
- Their work is not just art but a kind of ritual sacrifice to dark, unnamed forces.
5. Significance in Relation to Gorky’s Creatures That Once Were Men
While Chesterton does not directly analyze Gorky’s stories, his introduction frames how a Western reader might approach them:
- Gorky’s naturalism (grim depictions of poverty, alcoholism, and degradation) is not just social realism but a kind of spiritual revelation.
- The despair in Gorky’s characters is not just personal suffering but a manifestation of an ancient, almost mythic, Russian sadness.
- Chesterton’s critique suggests that Gorky’s deterministic worldview (where people are crushed by forces beyond their control) is not a modern insight but a return to pagan fatalism.
In this sense, Chesterton challenges the reader to see Gorky’s work as:
- A product of Russia’s "eternal melancholy" (not just a response to 19th-century industrialization).
- A disguised form of religious expression (where suffering is not just social but metaphysical).
- A warning about the dangers of mistaking old superstitions for new truths.
6. Chesterton’s Own Bias & Critical Perspective
It’s important to note that Chesterton’s view is not neutral—he was a devout Christian and a critic of both socialism and pessimistic modernism. His introduction reflects:
- Distrust of naturalism (which he saw as dehumanizing).
- Skepticism of "progress" (he believed old truths were being abandoned for false new ones).
- A defense of Western Christianity against what he saw as barbaric, pre-Christian despair.
Thus, his reading of Gorky is not purely literary but theological and cultural.
Conclusion: Why This Introduction Matters
Chesterton’s essay is not just about Gorky but about the nature of modern literature itself. He argues that:
- The most "advanced" ideas often come from the least "civilized" places.
- What seems new is often very old—just repackaged in scientific or philosophical language.
- True criticism begins with observing contradictions, not immediately explaining them away.
For a reader of Creatures That Once Were Men, this introduction sets a provocative tone:
- Are Gorky’s stories realistic social critiques?
- Or are they mythic expressions of an ancient Russian soul?
- Is their power in their modernity or in their connection to something primal and eternal?
Chesterton leaves these questions unanswered, inviting the reader to confront the paradox—just as he believes all good criticism should.
Final Thought: Chesterton’s Style as a Mirror of His Argument
Chesterton’s witty, paradoxical, and combative prose mirrors his central claim:
- Modern pessimism is itself a contradiction—it claims to be new and scientific, but it feels ancient and supernatural.
- His playful yet serious tone reflects his belief that truth is often found in apparent opposites.
In this way, the form of his essay reinforces its content, making it not just an introduction to Gorky, but a manifestation of the very tensions it describes.