Excerpt

Excerpt from Common Sense, by Thomas Paine

Some writers have so confounded society with government, as to leave
little or no distinction between them; whereas they are not only
different, but have different origins. Society is produced by our
wants, and government by our wickedness; the former promotes our
happiness positively by uniting our affections, the latter
negatively by restraining our vices. The one encourages intercourse,
the other creates distinctions. The first a patron, the last a
punisher.

Society in every state is a blessing, but government even in its
best state is but a necessary evil; in its worst state an
intolerable one; for when we suffer, or are exposed to the same
miseries by a government, which we might expect in a country without
government, our calamity is heightened by reflecting that we furnish
the means by which we suffer. Government, like dress, is the badge
of lost innocence; the palaces of kings are built on the ruins of
the bowers of paradise. For were the impulses of conscience clear,
uniform, and irresistibly obeyed, man would need no other lawgiver;
but that not being the case, he finds it necessary to surrender up a
part of his property to furnish means for the protection of the rest;
and this he is induced to do by the same prudence which in every
other case advises him out of two evils to choose the least.
Wherefore, security being the true design and end of government, it
unanswerably follows that whatever form thereof appears most likely
to ensure it to us, with the least expence and greatest benefit, is
preferable to all others.

In order to gain a clear and just idea of the design and end of
government, let us suppose a small number of persons settled in some
sequestered part of the earth, unconnected with the rest, they will
then represent the first peopling of any country, or of the world.
In this state of natural liberty, society will be their first
thought. A thousand motives will excite them thereto, the strength
of one man is so unequal to his wants, and his mind so unfitted for
perpetual solitude, that he is soon obliged to seek assistance and
relief of another, who in his turn requires the same. Four or five
united would be able to raise a tolerable dwelling in the midst of a
wilderness, but one man might labour out of the common period of
life without accomplishing any thing; when he had felled his timber
he could not remove it, nor erect it after it was removed; hunger in
the mean time would urge him from his work, and every different want
call him a different way. Disease, nay even misfortune would be
death, for though neither might be mortal, yet either would disable
him from living, and reduce him to a state in which he might rather
be said to perish than to die.

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Explanation

Detailed Explanation of the Excerpt from Common Sense by Thomas Paine

Context of the Source

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776) was a revolutionary pamphlet that played a crucial role in persuading American colonists to declare independence from Britain. Written in plain, accessible language, it rejected monarchy and hereditary rule, advocating instead for democratic governance based on reason and natural rights. The excerpt provided distinguishes between society (a natural, beneficial human association) and government (an artificial, necessary but flawed institution).

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Key Themes in the Excerpt

1. Society vs. Government

   • Paine argues that society arises from human needs and cooperation, fostering happiness and mutual support.
   • Government, however, is a response to human wickedness—a "necessary evil" that restrains vice but also creates inequality and oppression.

2. Government as a "Necessary Evil"

   • Even in its best form, government is a burden; at its worst, it becomes tyrannical.
   • Paine compares government to dress—a symbol of humanity’s fall from innocence (a biblical allusion to Adam and Eve’s expulsion from Eden).

3. The Origin of Government

   • If humans were perfectly moral, they would need no government. But since they are not, they sacrifice some freedom and property to secure protection.
   • This is a pragmatic choice: people accept government as the "lesser evil" compared to chaos.

4. The Purpose of Government: Security

   • The only legitimate function of government is to provide security with minimal cost and maximum benefit.
   • Any government that fails in this purpose should be reformed or abolished.

5. Natural Liberty and Human Interdependence

   • Paine imagines a hypothetical "state of nature" (similar to Locke and Rousseau) where isolated individuals would struggle to survive.
   • Cooperation (society) is natural and beneficial, while government is an artificial, often oppressive, solution to human flaws.

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Literary Devices & Rhetorical Strategies

1. Contrast & Antithesis

   • Paine sharply opposes society (positive, unifying) and government (negative, divisive).
     • "Society is produced by our wants, and government by our wickedness."
     • "The former promotes our happiness positively… the latter negatively."
   • This binary opposition reinforces his argument that government is an unnatural imposition.

2. Metaphor & Analogy

   • Government as "dress" → Suggests it is an artificial covering for human corruption.
   • Palaces built on the ruins of paradise → Implies monarchy destroys natural freedom.
   • Government as a "badge of lost innocence" → Reinforces the idea that it is a consequence of human sin (biblical allusion).

3. Hypothetical Scenario (Thought Experiment)

   • Paine asks readers to imagine a small group in isolation to illustrate how society forms naturally, while government is a later, forced addition.
   • This appeal to logic makes his argument more tangible.

4. Appeal to Pathos (Emotion)

   • Describes the harshness of solitude: "Disease, nay even misfortune would be death."
   • Highlights the injustice of government oppression: "our calamity is heightened by reflecting that we furnish the means by which we suffer."
   • This evokes sympathy for the oppressed and anger toward tyranny.

5. Repetition & Parallel Structure

   • "Society in every state is a blessing, but government even in its best state is but a necessary evil; in its worst state an intolerable one."
   • The parallelism emphasizes the inevitability of government’s flaws.

6. Appeal to Pragmatism (Utilitarian Logic)

   • "Wherefore, security being the true design and end of government, it unanswerably follows that whatever form… appears most likely to ensure it to us, with the least expence and greatest benefit, is preferable."
   • Paine argues for government as a tool, not an absolute authority—justifying revolution if it fails.

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Significance of the Passage

1. Radical Challenge to Monarchy & Authority

   • Paine rejects the divine right of kings, arguing that government is a human construct, not a natural or god-given institution.
   • This was revolutionary in 1776, when monarchy was still widely accepted as ordained by God.

2. Foundation for Democratic Thought

   • The idea that government exists only to serve the people (not the other way around) became a cornerstone of democratic theory.
   • Influenced the U.S. Declaration of Independence and later libertarian and republican movements.

3. Justification for Revolution

   • If government is a necessary evil, then a tyrannical government is worse than no government at all.
   • This logic supported the American Revolution and later revolutions (e.g., French Revolution).

4. Distinction Between Society and the State

   • Paine’s separation of society (natural, good) from government (artificial, flawed) influenced later thinkers like anarchists (who reject government entirely) and libertarians (who seek minimal government).

5. Accessible Political Philosophy

   • Unlike complex treatises (e.g., Locke’s Second Treatise), Paine wrote in plain, persuasive language, making radical ideas understandable to the common people.

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Line-by-Line Breakdown of Key Sections

1. "Some writers have so confounded society with government, as to leave little or no distinction between them…"

   • Paine criticizes political theorists (likely defenders of monarchy) who equate society with government, implying that hierarchy is natural.
   • He separates the two: society is organic; government is imposed.

2. "Society is produced by our wants, and government by our wickedness…"

   • Society = cooperation for survival and happiness.
   • Government = a response to human corruption (crime, greed, violence).

3. "Society in every state is a blessing, but government even in its best state is but a necessary evil…"

   • Government is never ideal—even at best, it’s a compromise, and at worst, it’s oppressive.
   • The phrase "necessary evil" suggests that while government is unavoidable, it should be minimized and controlled.

4. "Government, like dress, is the badge of lost innocence…"

   • Biblical allusion: After Adam and Eve sinned, they covered themselves (Genesis 3:7).
   • Implies that government, like clothing, is a symbol of human corruption.

5. "For were the impulses of conscience clear, uniform, and irresistibly obeyed, man would need no other lawgiver…"

   • If people were morally perfect, they wouldn’t need government.
   • Since they’re not, they trade some freedom for security (a social contract idea, similar to Locke and Rousseau).

6. "Let us suppose a small number of persons settled in some sequestered part of the earth…"

   • Hypothetical "state of nature" experiment to show that society forms naturally, while government is a later, forced addition.
   • Demonstrates that cooperation is instinctive, but government is not.

7. "Four or five united would be able to raise a tolerable dwelling… but one man might labour out the common period of life without accomplishing anything."

   • Practical argument for society: humans need each other to survive and thrive.
   • Isolation = death; cooperation = life.

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Conclusion: Why This Passage Matters

Paine’s excerpt is a powerful indictment of oppressive government and a defense of natural human freedom. By distinguishing between society (good) and government (a flawed tool), he:

• Undermined the legitimacy of monarchy.
• Justified revolution when government fails its purpose.
• Laid groundwork for democratic and libertarian thought.

His clear, emotional, and logical arguments made Common Sense one of the most influential political writings in history, shaping not just the American Revolution but modern ideas of governance, liberty, and human rights.

Would you like a deeper dive into any specific aspect (e.g., comparisons to Locke/Hobbes, anarchist interpretations, or Paine’s broader influence)?

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Questions

Question 1

The passage’s depiction of government as a "badge of lost innocence" primarily serves to:

A. evoke a nostalgic longing for a pre-civilizational utopia where human morality was uncorrupted by institutional constraints.
B. suggest that government, like original sin, is an inescapable consequence of human nature that must be endured with resignation.
C. imply that the legitimacy of government derives from its ability to restore the moral purity that society has forfeited through collective action.
D. contrast the artificiality of political systems with the organic development of social bonds, thereby undermining divine-right theories of rule.
E. frame government as a symptomatic response to moral failure rather than an intrinsic or virtuous extension of human association.

Question 2

When Paine argues that "security being the true design and end of government, it unanswerably follows that whatever form thereof appears most likely to ensure it to us, with the least expence and greatest benefit, is preferable to all others," his reasoning most closely aligns with which of the following philosophical principles?

A. The categorical imperative, as it prioritises universal moral laws over pragmatic outcomes.
B. Utilitarian calculus, in that it evaluates governance solely by its capacity to maximise collective well-being.
C. Social contract theory, wherein the justification for political authority rests on its ability to fulfil a mutually agreed-upon purpose.
D. Virtue ethics, because it assumes that the moral character of rulers determines the efficacy of governance.
E. Existentialist autonomy, as it asserts that individuals must freely choose their political systems without external constraints.

Question 3

The hypothetical scenario of "a small number of persons settled in some sequestered part of the earth" functions rhetorically to:

A. demonstrate that government is an inevitable outcome of human interaction, even in the most primitive conditions.
B. illustrate the natural emergence of cooperative society as distinct from the later, deliberate imposition of governmental structures.
C. prove that human beings are inherently incapable of self-sufficiency, thereby justifying the necessity of authoritarian control.
D. suggest that the absence of government would lead to a Hobbesian state of perpetual conflict, rendering anarchy untenable.
E. undermine the Enlightenment ideal of progress by showing that isolated communities regress to a pre-social state.

Question 4

The passage’s tone when describing government as "in its worst state an intolerable" evil is best characterised as:

A. cynical, in that it dismisses all forms of governance as equally corrupt and beyond redemption.
B. resigned, conveying an acceptance that human flaws make oppressive rule an unavoidable reality.
C. indignant, combining moral outrage at injustice with a pragmatic call for reform or abolition.
D. detached, presenting the analysis as an objective observation rather than a passionate critique.
E. utopian, implying that a perfect government could exist if only human nature were fundamentally altered.

Question 5

Which of the following inferences is most strongly supported by the passage’s distinction between society and government?

A. The primary function of society is to suppress individual desires in service of collective survival, whereas government exists to liberate those desires.
B. Government is a temporary institution that will eventually be rendered obsolete by the moral progress of society.
C. The value of society lies in its voluntary and affirmative promotion of human flourishing, while government operates as a coercive corrective to human failings.
D. Society and government are interdependent systems that cannot be meaningfully separated in practice, despite theoretical distinctions.
E. The origin of society is rooted in rational self-interest, whereas government arises from irrational emotional impulses like fear and envy.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: E

Why E is most correct: The phrase "badge of lost innocence" is a metaphorical indictment of government as a symptom of human moral failure (wickedness), not an organic or virtuous development. Paine explicitly contrasts society (produced by "our wants") with government (produced by "our wickedness"), framing the latter as a reactive measure rather than an intrinsic good. E captures this distinction by emphasising government’s role as a response to moral deficiency, not an extension of human association.

Why the distractors are less supported:

• A: While the metaphor evokes a pre-lapsarian ideal, Paine’s focus is on critique, not nostalgia. The passage does not dwell on utopia but on the pragmatic flaws of government.
• B: Paine does not advocate resignation; he implies government is contingent and reformable (or abolishable). The tone is critical, not fatalistic.
• C: The passage argues government lacks legitimacy because it stems from wickedness, not that it restores moral purity. Its purpose is pragmatic (security), not moral redemption.
• D: While Paine undermines divine-right theories, the "badge" metaphor specifically targets government’s moral origin (wickedness), not just its artificiality. D is too narrow.

2) Correct answer: C

Why C is most correct: Paine’s argument hinges on government’s legitimacy being conditional on its fulfilment of a mutually beneficial purpose (security). This aligns with social contract theory, where political authority is justified only by its ability to serve the people’s agreed-upon ends. The phrasing "design and end" and the pragmatic evaluation of forms of government ("least expence and greatest benefit") mirror contractarian logic (e.g., Locke, Rousseau).

Why the distractors are less supported:

• A: The categorical imperative is deontological, focusing on moral duty, not consequentialist evaluations of "expence and benefit."
• B: Utilitarianism prioritises maximising well-being, but Paine’s criterion is security—a specific, limited purpose, not general happiness. His tone is not benthamite.
• D: Virtue ethics centres on the moral character of actors, but Paine evaluates government structurally (its form and outcomes), not the virtues of rulers.
• E: Existentialist autonomy emphasises individual freedom from systems, but Paine is prescribing a collective choice of governance, not radical individualism.

3) Correct answer: B

Why B is most correct: The hypothetical scenario demonstrates how society arises naturally from human needs ("a thousand motives will excite them thereto"), while government is a later, deliberate imposition to address wickedness. Paine uses the thought experiment to contrast organic society with artificial government, reinforcing his central distinction.

Why the distractors are less supported:

• A: The scenario shows society forming without government, implying government is not inevitable in primitive conditions.
• C: Paine argues for cooperation, not authoritarianism. The scenario proves humans thrive through voluntary association, not that they need coercion.
• D: Paine does not describe a Hobbesian "war of all against all." The isolated individuals seek society; conflict is not the default.
• E: The passage celebrates society’s emergence, not regression. Paine’s state of nature is productive (e.g., building dwellings), not a collapse.

4) Correct answer: C

Why C is most correct: The tone is indignant: Paine expresses moral outrage at government’s potential for oppression ("intolerable one") while simultaneously offering a pragmatic path forward (choosing the "least evil" form). The combination of emotional critique ("our calamity is heightened") and rational prescription ("whatever form... appears most likely to ensure it") reflects indignation, not cynicism or resignation.

Why the distractors are less supported:

• A: Paine is not cynical; he believes government can be reformed or replaced (e.g., preferring forms that ensure security). Cynicism would dismiss all governance as equally corrupt.
• B: Resignation implies passive acceptance, but Paine’s call to choose the "least evil" is active and reformist.
• D: The tone is visibly engaged ("our calamity is heightened"), not detached. Paine’s language is persuasive, not neutral.
• E: Paine does not suggest government could be perfect; he calls it a "necessary evil." His focus is on mitigating harm, not utopianism.

5) Correct answer: C

Why C is most correct: Paine explicitly contrasts society (which "promotes our happiness positively by uniting our affections") with government (which "restrains our vices" negatively). Society is voluntary and affirmative (fostering flourishing), while government is coercive and corrective (addressing failings). C captures this duality precisely.

Why the distractors are less supported:

• A: Paine argues society enables individual flourishing, not suppresses desires. Government, not society, restrains (via "punishment").
• B: Paine calls government a permanent "necessary evil," not a temporary institution. Moral progress does not obviate the need for it.
• D: Paine’s entire argument rests on separating society and government. D contradicts the passage’s core distinction.
• E: Society arises from "wants" (practical needs), not just self-interest, and government arises from "wickedness" (moral failure), not irrational emotions like envy. E misrepresents both origins.