Article #246-2 | Gutenberg Articles

Excerpt

Excerpt from The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, by Omar Khayyam

Omar Khayyam, The Astronomer-Poet of Persia.

Omar Khayyam was born at Naishapur in Khorassan in the latter half of
our Eleventh, and died within the First Quarter of our Twelfth
Century. The Slender Story of his Life is curiously twined about that
of two other very considerable Figures in their Time and Country: one
of whom tells the Story of all Three. This was Nizam ul Mulk, Vizier
to Alp Arslan the Son, and Malik Shah the Grandson, of Toghrul Beg the
Tartar, who had wrested Persia from the feeble Successor of Mahmud the
Great, and founded that Seljukian Dynasty which finally roused Europe
into the Crusades. This Nizam ul Mulk, in his Wasiyat--or
Testament--which he wrote and left as a Memorial for future
Statesmen--relates the following, as quoted in the Calcutta Review,
No. 59, from Mirkhond's History of the Assassins.

"'One of the greatest of the wise men of Khorassan was the Imam
Mowaffak of Naishapur, a man highly honored and reverenced,--may God
rejoice his soul; his illustrious years exceeded eighty-five, and it
was the universal belief that every boy who read the Koran or studied
the traditions in his presence, would assuredly attain to honor and
happiness. For this cause did my father send me from Tus to Naishapur
with Abd-us-samad, the doctor of law, that I might employ myself in
study and learning under the guidance of that illustrious teacher.
Towards me he ever turned an eye of favor and kindness, and as his
pupil I felt for him extreme affection and devotion, so that I passed
four years in his service. When I first came there, I found two other
pupils of mine own age newly arrived, Hakim Omar Khayyam, and the ill-
fated Ben Sabbah. Both were endowed with sharpness of wit and the
highest natural powers; and we three formed a close friendship
together. When the Imam rose from his lectures, they used to join me,
and we repeated to each other the lessons we had heard. Now Omar was
a native of Naishapur, while Hasan Ben Sabbah's father was one Ali, a
man of austere life and practise, but heretical in his creed and
doctrine. One day Hasan said to me and to Khayyam, "It is a universal
belief that the pupils of the Imam Mowaffak will attain to fortune.
Now, even if we all do not attain thereto, without doubt one of us
will; what then shall be our mutual pledge and bond?" We answered,
"Be it what you please." "Well," he said, "let us make a vow, that to
whomsoever this fortune falls, he shall share it equally with the
rest, and reserve no pre-eminence for himself." "Be it so," we both
replied, and on those terms we mutually pledged our words. Years
rolled on, and I went from Khorassan to Transoxiana, and wandered to
Ghazni and Cabul; and when I returned, I was invested with office, and
rose to be administrator of affairs during the Sultanate of Sultan Alp
Arslan.'

Explanation

Detailed Explanation of the Excerpt from The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám

This passage is not a poem from The Rubáiyát itself but rather a biographical and historical preface written by Edward FitzGerald (the 19th-century English translator of Khayyám’s quatrains) in his 1859 introduction. It provides context for Omar Khayyám’s life, his intellectual circle, and the political and religious tensions of 11th–12th century Persia. Below is a breakdown of the text’s content, themes, literary devices, and significance, with a focus on the excerpt itself.

1. Context of the Excerpt

Historical Background

The passage is drawn from Nizam al-Mulk’s Wasiyat (Testament), a political memoir by the powerful Seljuk Vizier (prime minister) who served under Alp Arslan and Malik Shah.
The Seljuk Turks (a Central Asian dynasty) had recently conquered Persia, displacing the Ghaznavids (successors of Mahmud of Ghazni, famous for his raids into India).
This was a time of intellectual ferment in Persia, with scientific, philosophical, and religious debates shaping the era. Khayyám was part of this milieu as a mathematician, astronomer, and poet.

Key Figures Mentioned

Imam Mowaffak of Naishapur – A revered religious scholar whose students were believed to be destined for greatness.
Omar Khayyám – The poet-mathematician, known for his skeptical, hedonistic, and philosophical quatrains (rubáiyát).
Hasan-i Sabbāh – The "ill-fated" figure who later became the founder of the Nizari Ismailis (the "Assassins"), a radical Shi’a sect known for political assassinations.
Nizam al-Mulk – The Vizier who narrates this story, representing orthodox Sunni political power in contrast to Sabbāh’s heresy.

The trio’s youthful pact—that whichever of them gained power would share it equally—becomes ironic in light of their divergent fates:

Nizam al-Mulk becomes a powerful statesman (but is later assassinated, possibly by Sabbāh’s followers).
Hasan-i Sabbāh becomes a notorious religious revolutionary.
Omar Khayyám remains a philosopher-poet, detached from political power.

2. Themes in the Excerpt

A. Fate and Fortune

The passage emphasizes the belief in destiny—Imam Mowaffak’s students are predestined for success.
The three friends’ pact reflects a youthful idealism about shared fate, but reality fractures their bond:
- Nizam al-Mulk gains power but betrays the pact (he does not share his wealth equally).
- Sabbāh turns to radicalism, rejecting the establishment.
- Khayyám remains an outsider, neither a ruler nor a revolutionary.

B. Knowledge vs. Power

The Imam’s school represents traditional Islamic learning (Koran, Hadith), but the three friends transcend mere scholarship:
- Nizam al-Mulk applies knowledge to politics.
- Sabbāh uses it for subversion.
- Khayyám questions it philosophically (as seen in his poetry).

C. Heresy and Orthodoxy

Sabbāh’s father is described as "austere… but heretical", foreshadowing his son’s break from Sunni Islam.
Nizam al-Mulk represents Sunni orthodoxy and state power, while Sabbāh embodies radical Shi’a dissent.
Khayyám, in his poetry, questions religious dogma entirely, making him a third, more skeptical path.

D. Friendship and Betrayal

The youthful friendship is idealized ("close friendship," "mutual pledge"), but adulthood corrupts it.
The broken vow symbolizes how power and ideology divide people.

3. Literary Devices & Style

A. Dramatic Irony

The reader knows (or can infer) the future fates of the three men, making their youthful optimism tragic:
- Nizam al-Mulk will be assassinated (possibly by Sabbāh’s followers).
- Sabbāh becomes a feared revolutionary.
- Khayyám writes poetry about life’s futility.

B. Foreshadowing

Sabbāh is called "ill-fated"—hinting at his dark future.
His father’s "heretical" beliefs predict his son’s radicalism.
The pact’s failure foreshadows the collapse of their friendship.

C. Contrast & Juxtaposition

Nizam al-Mulk (orthodox power) vs. Sabbāh (heretical rebellion) vs. Khayyám (philosophical detachment).
Youthful idealism vs. adult reality.

D. Historical Allusion

The mention of Alp Arslan, Malik Shah, and the Seljuks grounds the story in real political history, linking Khayyám to the Crusades era.

4. Significance of the Excerpt

A. Framing Khayyám’s Poetry

FitzGerald includes this story to contextualize Khayyám’s cynical, hedonistic verses.
Khayyám’s poetry often rejects religious certainty and embraces wine, love, and doubt—this backstory suggests why:
- He saw power corrupt (Nizam al-Mulk).
- He saw fanaticism destroy (Sabbāh).
- He chose philosophical detachment instead.

B. The Tragedy of Intellectuals in Power

The three friends represent different responses to knowledge:
- Nizam al-Mulk uses it for statecraft (but is killed).
- Sabbāh uses it for revolution (but becomes a villain).
- Khayyám uses it for poetry and science (but remains obscure in his time).
The excerpt questions whether wisdom leads to happiness or ruin.

C. The Assassins & Political Intrigue

The reference to Hasan-i Sabbāh connects Khayyám to the legendary Assassins, a group that terrified medieval rulers.
This adds a layer of danger and mystery to Khayyám’s world—his poetry was written in a time of religious wars and assassinations.

D. FitzGerald’s Romanticization

FitzGerald (a Victorian Orientalist) mythologizes Khayyám as a tragic genius—this passage helps create that image.
The broken friendship mirrors FitzGerald’s own melancholic worldview (he was a reclusive, pessimistic figure).

5. Key Takeaways from the Text Itself

The Power of Education & Mentorship
- Imam Mowaffak’s school is a center of destiny, but the students take different paths.
- Suggests that knowledge alone does not determine fate.
The Fragility of Youthful Ideals
- The three friends’ vow is noble but naive—real life breaks such promises.
The Dangers of Power & Heresy
- Nizam al-Mulk gains the world but loses his life.
- Sabbāh gains influence but becomes a monster.
- Khayyám avoids both fates by staying detached.
Khayyám as the Outsider
- Unlike his friends, he does not seek power or revolution—instead, he observes and writes poetry.
- This explains why his Rubáiyát are full of wine, doubt, and carpe diem themes.

Conclusion: Why This Matters for The Rubáiyát

This excerpt sets the stage for understanding Khayyám’s poetry:

His skepticism comes from seeing power and fanaticism fail.
His hedonism ("Drink wine, for tomorrow we die") is a reaction to a violent, uncertain world.
His philosophical detachment is a third way—neither ruling nor rebelling, but questioning.

FitzGerald’s inclusion of this story shapes how we read Khayyám—not just as a poet, but as a witness to history’s cruelties, choosing wisdom and pleasure over power or dogma.

Would you like a deeper analysis of how this connects to specific quatrains in The Rubáiyát?

Questions

Question 1

The passage’s depiction of the three friends’ youthful pact most fundamentally serves to:

A. illustrate the inevitability of political corruption in medieval Persian society.
B. contrast the fates of those who embrace orthodoxy versus those who reject it.
C. expose the tension between idealism and the disillusionment wrought by lived experience.
D. demonstrate the superiority of intellectual detachment over political engagement.
E. critique the superficiality of educational institutions in fostering genuine moral bonds.

Question 2

The narrator’s description of Hasan-i Sabbāh’s father as “a man of austere life and practise, but heretical in his creed and doctrine” primarily functions to:

A. foreshadow the son’s eventual rejection of all religious systems.
B. establish a causal link between parental influence and radical ideologies.
C. highlight the hypocrisy inherent in ascetic lifestyles.
D. introduce a thematic duality between outward piety and subversive belief.
E. suggest that intellectual rigor is incompatible with doctrinal conformity.

Question 3

The passage’s structure—beginning with a historical overview before narrowing to a personal anecdote—is most effectively interpreted as a:

A. rhetorical strategy to lend credibility to an otherwise apocryphal story.
B. stylistic flourish typical of 19th-century Orientalist prose.
C. means of emphasizing the insignificance of individual lives against grand historical forces.
D. device to frame Khayyám’s later philosophical detachment as a response to witnessed betrayals.
E. critique of the unreliability of oral histories in reconstructing biographical truth.

Question 4

Which of the following best captures the implicit relationship between Nizam al-Mulk’s eventual rise to power and the broken pact?

A. His ascent validates the Imam’s prophecy but undermines the moral integrity of his education.
B. His success is portrayed as inevitable, rendering the pact a naive but harmless fantasy.
C. His betrayal of the vow is a necessary consequence of political pragmatism.
D. His achievement exposes the pact as a hollow ritual, devoid of binding force.
E. His trajectory embodies the corruption of idealism by institutional power, a theme central to the passage.

Question 5

The phrase “ill-fated Ben Sabbah” is most richly interpreted as an example of:

A. dramatic irony, given the narrator’s unaware foreshadowing of Sabbāh’s infamous legacy.
B. narrative bias, revealing the Vizier’s perspective as inherently opposed to heretical movements.
C. tragic foreshadowing, aligning Sabbāh’s fate with the inevitability of his radical choices.
D. psychological projection, where the narrator’s fear of subversion colors his characterization.
E. historical determinism, suggesting Sabbāh’s outcomes were predestined by his lineage.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: C

Why C is most correct: The pact represents a youthful, idealized bond that collapses under the weight of adult realities—power, betrayal, and divergent paths. The passage emphasizes the gap between the friends’ early optimism and their later fractures, illustrating the tension between idealism and disillusionment.