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Excerpt

Excerpt from Pharsalia; Dramatic Episodes of the Civil Wars, by Lucan

Wars worse than civil on Emathian (1) plains,
And crime let loose we sing; how Rome's high race
Plunged in her vitals her victorious sword;
Armies akin embattled, with the force
Of all the shaken earth bent on the fray;
And burst asunder, to the common guilt,
A kingdom's compact; eagle with eagle met,
Standard to standard, spear opposed to spear.

Whence, citizens, this rage, this boundless lust
To sate barbarians with the blood of Rome?
Did not the shade of Crassus, wandering still, (2)
Cry for his vengeance? Could ye not have spoiled,
To deck your trophies, haughty Babylon?
Why wage campaigns that send no laurels home?
What lands, what oceans might have been the prize
Of all the blood thus shed in civil strife!
Where Titan rises, where night hides the stars,
'Neath southern noons all quivering with heat,
Or where keen frost that never yields to spring
In icy fetters binds the Scythian main:
Long since barbarians by the Eastern sea
And far Araxes' stream, and those who know
(If any such there be) the birth of Nile
Had felt our yoke. Then, Rome, upon thyself
With all the world beneath thee, if thou must,
Wage this nefarious war, but not till then.

Now view the houses with half-ruined walls
Throughout Italian cities; stone from stone
Has slipped and lies at length; within the home
No guard is found, and in the ancient streets so
Scarce seen the passer by. The fields in vain,
Rugged with brambles and unploughed for years,
Ask for the hand of man; for man is not.
Nor savage Pyrrhus nor the Punic horde
E'er caused such havoc: to no foe was given
To strike thus deep; but civil strife alone
Dealt the fell wound and left the death behind.
Yet if the fates could find no other way (3)
For Nero coming, nor the gods with ease
Gain thrones in heaven; and if the Thunderer
Prevailed not till the giant's war was done,
Complaint is silent. For this boon supreme
Welcome, ye gods, be wickedness and crime;
Thronged with our dead be dire Pharsalia's fields,
Be Punic ghosts avenged by Roman blood;
Add to these ills the toils of Mutina;
Perusia's dearth; on Munda's final field
The shock of battle joined; let Leucas' Cape
Shatter the routed navies; servile hands
Unsheath the sword on fiery Etna's slopes:
Still Rome is gainer by the civil war.
Thou, Caesar, art her prize. When thou shalt choose,
Thy watch relieved, to seek divine abodes,
All heaven rejoicing; and shalt hold a throne,
Or else elect to govern Phoebus' car
And light a subject world that shall not dread
To owe her brightness to a different Sun;
All shall concede thy right: do what thou wilt,
Select thy Godhead, and the central clime
Whence thou shalt rule the world with power divine.
And yet the Northern or the Southern Pole
We pray thee, choose not; but in rays direct
Vouchsafe thy radiance to thy city Rome.
Press thou on either side, the universe
Should lose its equipoise: take thou the midst,
And weight the scales, and let that part of heaven
Where Caesar sits, be evermore serene
And smile upon us with unclouded blue.
Then may all men lay down their arms, and peace
Through all the nations reign, and shut the gates
That close the temple of the God of War.
Be thou my help, to me e'en now divine!
Let Delphi's steep her own Apollo guard,
And Nysa keep her Bacchus, uninvoked.
Rome is my subject and my muse art thou!

Explanation

**Detailed Explanation of the Excerpt from Pharsalia by Lucan**

Lucan’s Pharsalia (also called De Bello Civili, "On the Civil War") is an epic poem written in the 1st century CE during the reign of Emperor Nero. Unlike traditional epics that glorify war (e.g., Homer’s Iliad or Virgil’s Aeneid), Lucan’s work is a dark, anti-war epic that laments the Roman Civil War (49–45 BCE) between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, a conflict that shattered the Republic and paved the way for imperial autocracy. The excerpt provided is from the proem (opening lines) of Pharsalia, setting the tone for the entire poem.

1. Context & Historical Background

The passage refers to the Roman Civil War, particularly the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BCE), where Caesar decisively defeated Pompey, leading to the collapse of the Republic. Lucan writes under Nero (Caesar’s adopted heir), making the poem politically charged—it critiques the cost of Caesar’s rise while acknowledging his divine-like status.

Key references in the text:

(1) Emathian plains – A poetic term for the fields of Pharsalus in Thessaly (Greece), where the decisive battle occurred.
(2) The shade of Crassus – Marcus Licinius Crassus, a Roman general who died in 53 BCE fighting the Parthians. His death left Caesar and Pompey as the two dominant figures, leading to their conflict.
(3) "If the fates could find no other way for Nero coming" – A controversial line suggesting that the civil war was a necessary evil to bring about Nero’s reign (a flattering but morally ambiguous statement).

2. Themes in the Excerpt

A. The Horror of Civil War

Lucan presents civil war as the ultimate perversion of Roman virtue. Unlike wars against foreign enemies (e.g., Pyrrhus or Carthage), this conflict is self-destructive:

"Wars worse than civil" – The war is not just between citizens but a moral collapse.
"Rome's high race / Plunged in her vitals her victorious sword" – Rome is self-cannibalizing, turning its strength against itself.
"Eagle with eagle met, / Standard to standard" – The Roman legions, symbols of unity, now fight each other.
"Civil strife alone / Dealt the fell wound and left the death behind" – Unlike external wars, this one leaves permanent scars.

The imagery of ruined cities, abandoned fields, and depopulation emphasizes the economic and social devastation wrought by the war.

B. The Futility of Civil Strife

Lucan questions why Romans waste their blood on each other instead of conquering new lands:

"Why wage campaigns that send no laurels home?" – Civil war brings no glory, only shame.
"What lands, what oceans might have been the prize / Of all the blood thus shed in civil strife!" – The energy spent on internal conflict could have expanded Rome’s empire further (e.g., conquering Parthia, Scythia, or the source of the Nile).
"Then, Rome, upon thyself / With all the world beneath thee, if thou must, / Wage this nefarious war, but not till then." – Only after total global domination should Rome turn inward—but even then, it would be unjustifiable.

C. The Divine Justification of Caesar (and Nero)

Despite the horrors of war, Lucan suggests that Caesar’s rise (and thus Nero’s) was fated by the gods:

"Yet if the fates could find no other way / For Nero coming..." – The civil war was a necessary evil to bring about Nero’s rule.
"All heaven rejoicing; and shalt hold a throne, / Or else elect to govern Phoebus' car" – Caesar (and by extension Nero) is divinized, compared to Apollo (Phoebus) or a cosmic ruler.
"Press thou on either side, the universe / Should lose its equipoise" – Caesar’s power is so great that his absence would unbalance the world.

This is ironic flattery—Lucan praises Nero while also implying that his reign was built on bloodshed and chaos.

D. The Hope for Peace Under a Divine Ruler

The poem ends with a paradoxical plea for peace through autocracy:

"Then may all men lay down their arms, and peace / Through all the nations reign..." – Only under a single, divine ruler (Caesar/Nero) can war end.
"Be thou my help, to me e'en now divine! / ... Rome is my subject and my muse art thou!" – Lucan directly invokes Caesar (or Nero) as his poetic patron, replacing traditional gods like Apollo.

This reflects the Stotic idea that even tyranny is preferable to civil war—a controversial stance in a work that otherwise mourns the Republic’s fall.

3. Literary Devices & Style

Lucan’s style is rhetorical, dramatic, and grotesque, using:

Paradox & Irony:
- "Wars worse than civil" – Civil war is already the worst, yet this is even worse.
- "Welcome, ye gods, be wickedness and crime" – Morally inverted, suggesting evil is justified if it leads to Nero.
Hyperbole & Exaggeration:
- "All the shaken earth bent on the fray" – The war is cosmic in scale.
- "The shock of battle joined; let Leucas' Cape / Shatter the routed navies" – Battles are apocalyptic.
Personification & Imagery:
- "The fields in vain... ask for the hand of man" – Nature itself mourns the absence of farmers.
- "Eagle with eagle met" – The Roman legions, symbols of Rome, turn on each other.
Direct Address & Apostrophe:
- "Whence, citizens, this rage..." – Lucan accuses Rome itself of madness.
- "Thou, Caesar, art her prize" – He speaks to Caesar/Nero as a god.
Cosmic & Mythological Allusions:
- "Govern Phoebus' car" – Comparing Caesar to Apollo driving the sun chariot.
- "The Thunderer (Jupiter) prevailed not till the giant's war was done" – Referencing the Gigantomachy, suggesting Caesar’s rise is like a divine struggle.

4. Significance of the Passage

A. Political Commentary

Lucan writes under Nero’s tyranny, making Pharsalia a veiled critique of imperial power. While he flatters Nero, he also:

Exposes the cost of autocracy (civil war, destruction).
Questions whether the ends justify the means (was Nero’s rule worth the bloodshed?).
Laments the loss of the Republic, even if he accepts monarchy as inevitable.

B. Anti-War Epic

Unlike Homer or Virgil, Lucan does not glorify war. Instead:

He focuses on suffering, not heroism.
He blames the gods and fate for allowing such destruction.
He suggests that peace is only possible under a tyrant—a pessimistic view of human nature.

C. Influence on Later Literature

Dante places Lucan in Inferno (Canto IV) among the great poets, calling him "Lucano" and praising his tragic vision.
Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar echoes Lucan’s themes of betrayal, fate, and civil strife.
Modern anti-war literature (e.g., Wilfred Owen’s WWI poetry) shares Lucan’s disgust at glorified violence.

5. Line-by-Line Breakdown of Key Sections

Lines	Meaning & Analysis
"Wars worse than civil on Emathian plains, / And crime let loose we sing..."	Opens with horror, not heroism. "Worse than civil" suggests moral collapse.
"Armies akin embattled, with the force / Of all the shaken earth bent on the fray"	Brother vs. brother, nature itself trembles at the conflict.
"Whence, citizens, this rage, this boundless lust / To sate barbarians with the blood of Rome?"	Rhetorical question—why do Romans waste their blood instead of conquering enemies?
"Did not the shade of Crassus, wandering still, / Cry for his vengeance?"	Crassus’ ghost demands revenge, implying Pompey and Caesar’s war is fueled by past grievances.
"Now view the houses with half-ruined walls / Throughout Italian cities..."	Post-war devastation—cities in ruins, fields untended, society collapsed.
"Yet if the fates could find no other way / For Nero coming..."	Controversial justification—civil war was necessary for Nero’s rule.
"Thou, Caesar, art her prize. When thou shalt choose, / Thy watch relieved, to seek divine abodes..."	Caesar as a god, ascending to heaven, leaving Rome under Nero’s rule.
"Press thou on either side, the universe / Should lose its equipoise..."	Cosmic imagery—Caesar’s presence is essential to balance the world.
"Then may all men lay down their arms, and peace / Through all the nations reign..."	Irony: Peace comes only through absolute monarchy, not freedom.
"Rome is my subject and my muse art thou!"	Direct appeal to Caesar/Nero—Lucan replaces traditional gods with the emperor.

6. Conclusion: Why This Passage Matters

This excerpt from Pharsalia is one of the most powerful anti-war statements in ancient literature. Lucan:

Mourns the Republic’s fall while acknowledging the inevitability of empire.
Exposes the hypocrisy of power—war is horrible, yet it produces gods (Caesar/Nero).
Uses epic poetry to subvert epic traditions—instead of heroes, he shows victims and ruins.

His work remains relevant as a warning about civil conflict, the cost of ambition, and the dangers of unchecked power. The passage’s rhetorical intensity, moral complexity, and vivid imagery make it a masterpiece of tragic historical poetry.

Final Thought:

Lucan’s Pharsalia is not just about Rome’s civil war—it is about the price of power, the illusion of glory, and the fragile balance between order and chaos. His words echo through history, reminding us that the greatest wars are often the ones we wage against ourselves.

Questions

Question 1

The passage’s invocation of Crassus’ "wandering shade" serves primarily to:

A. establish a supernatural framework for the poem’s moral judgments, aligning the civil war with cosmic retribution.
B. underscore the cyclical nature of Roman military ambition, where each conquest begets further conflict.
C. contrast the futility of civil strife with the tangible gains of foreign wars, as exemplified by Crassus’ Parthian campaign.
D. implicate the unresolved grievances of Rome’s past as a catalyst for the present conflict, framing it as a war of vengeful ghosts.
E. evoke the Stoic concept of fate, wherein even the dead are bound to the deterministic unfolding of historical events.

Question 2

The speaker’s address to Caesar in the final stanza ("Thou, Caesar, art her prize") is most accurately described as:

A. a paradoxical elevation of tyranny as the sole guarantor of peace, undermining the poem’s earlier lamentations.
B. an unironic celebration of Caesar’s divinity, aligning the poem with the propagandistic traditions of imperial panegyric.
C. a veiled critique of Nero’s rule, using Caesar as a foil to highlight the current emperor’s inadequacies.
D. a Stoic resignation to the inevitability of autocracy, presented as the lesser evil compared to perpetual civil war.
E. a subversion of epic conventions, wherein the "hero" is revealed to be the very force that destroyed the society he now rules.

Question 3

The imagery of "half-ruined walls" and "fields in vain / Rugged with brambles" functions primarily to:

A. evoke the pastoral tradition, wherein the corruption of nature mirrors the moral decay of Rome’s leadership.
B. provide a literal inventory of war’s consequences, grounding the poem’s abstract themes in tangible destruction.
C. create a counterpoint to the cosmic scale of the opening lines, collapsing the epic’s grandeur into intimate, human desolation.
D. invoke the trope of the locus amoenus, wherein the ruined landscape symbolizes the lost golden age of the Republic.
E. foreshadow the poem’s later focus on agricultural reform as a means of restoring Rome’s shattered social order.

Question 4

The line "Complaint is silent" (following "Yet if the fates could find no other way / For Nero coming") is best understood as:

A. an admission of the speaker’s political cowardice, retreating from criticism in the face of imperial power.
B. a Stoic acceptance of divine will, wherein human suffering is justified by the greater good of Nero’s reign.
C. a sarcastic concession to the absurdity of the poem’s own argument, exposing the flattery as hollow.
D. a moment of dramatic irony, wherein the speaker’s silence contrasts with the poem’s overarching indictment of Nero.
E. the rhetorical pivot wherein the poem’s condemnation of civil war is subordinated to the teleological justification of autocracy.

Question 5

The passage’s closing invocation ("Rome is my subject and my muse art thou!") is most thematically consistent with which of the following interpretations?

A. The poet abandons traditional epic themes in favor of a new, secular humanism centered on Roman civic identity.
B. The poem’s muse is no longer the divine but the political reality of Caesarism, collapsing art into propaganda.
C. Lucan redefines poetic inspiration as a transactional exchange, wherein patronage dictates the boundaries of truth.
D. The shift from Apollo to Caesar as muse reflects the poem’s argument that poetry must serve the needs of the state.
E. The line underscores the poet’s complicity in the very systems he critiques, revealing the inescapability of imperial ideology.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: D

Why D is most correct: The reference to Crassus’ "wandering shade" crying for vengeance explicitly ties the civil war to unresolved historical grievances. The line suggests that the conflict between Caesar and Pompey is not merely a political struggle but a haunting by the past—Crassus’ defeat and death in Parthia left a void that fueled further violence. This interpretation aligns with the passage’s broader theme of cyclical vengeance and the idea that Rome’s civil war is, in part, a war of ghosts. The phrase "wandering still" reinforces the notion that the past is not buried but actively shaping the present.