Excerpt

Excerpt from History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 5, by Edward Gibbon

  13 (return) [ See, in the genuine or supposed works of John<br />
  Damascenus, two passages on the Virgin and St. Luke, which have<br />
  not been noticed by Gretser, nor consequently by Beausobre,<br />
  (Opera Joh. Damascen. tom. i. p. 618, 631.)]

  14 (return) [ “Your scandalous figures stand quite out from the<br />
  canvass: they are as bad as a group of statues!” It was thus that<br />
  the ignorance and bigotry of a Greek priest applauded the<br />
  pictures of Titian, which he had ordered, and refused to accept.]

  The worship of images had stolen into the church by insensible<br />
  degrees, and each petty step was pleasing to the superstitious<br />
  mind, as productive of comfort, and innocent of sin. But in the<br />
  beginning of the eighth century, in the full magnitude of the<br />
  abuse, the more timorous Greeks were awakened by an apprehension,<br />
  that under the mask of Christianity, they had restored the<br />
  religion of their fathers: they heard, with grief and impatience,<br />
  the name of idolaters; the incessant charge of the Jews and<br />
  Mahometans, 15 who derived from the Law and the Koran an immortal<br />
  hatred to graven images and all relative worship. The servitude<br />
  of the Jews might curb their zeal, and depreciate their<br />
  authority; but the triumphant Mussulmans, who reigned at<br />
  Damascus, and threatened Constantinople, cast into the scale of<br />
  reproach the accumulated weight of truth and victory. The cities<br />
  of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt had been fortified with the images<br />
  of Christ, his mother, and his saints; and each city presumed on<br />
  the hope or promise of miraculous defence. In a rapid conquest of<br />
  ten years, the Arabs subdued those cities and these images; and,<br />
  in their opinion, the Lord of Hosts pronounced a decisive<br />
  judgment between the adoration and contempt of these mute and<br />
  inanimate idols. 1511 For a while Edessa had braved the Persian<br />
  assaults; but the chosen city, the spouse of Christ, was involved<br />
  in the common ruin; and his divine resemblance became the slave<br />
  and trophy of the infidels. After a servitude of three hundred<br />
  years, the Palladium was yielded to the devotion of<br />
  Constantinople, for a ransom of twelve thousand pounds of silver,<br />
  the redemption of two hundred Mussulmans, and a perpetual truce<br />
  for the territory of Edessa. 16 In this season of distress and<br />
  dismay, the eloquence of the monks was exercised in the defence<br />
  of images; and they attempted to prove, that the sin and schism<br />
  of the greatest part of the Orientals had forfeited the favor,<br />
  and annihilated the virtue, of these precious symbols. But they<br />
  were now opposed by the murmurs of many simple or rational<br />
  Christians, who appealed to the evidence of texts, of facts, and<br />
  of the primitive times, and secretly desired the reformation of<br />
  the church. As the worship of images had never been established<br />
  by any general or positive law, its progress in the Eastern<br />
  empire had been retarded, or accelerated, by the differences of<br />
  men and manners, the local degrees of refinement, and the<br />
  personal characters of the bishops. The splendid devotion was<br />
  fondly cherished by the levity of the capital, and the inventive<br />
  genius of the Byzantine clergy; while the rude and remote<br />
  districts of Asia were strangers to this innovation of sacred<br />
  luxury. Many large congregations of Gnostics and Arians<br />
  maintained, after their conversion, the simple worship which had<br />
  preceded their separation; and the Armenians, the most warlike<br />
  subjects of Rome, were not reconciled, in the twelfth century, to<br />
  the sight of images. 17 These various denominations of men<br />
  afforded a fund of prejudice and aversion, of small account in<br />
  the villages of Anatolia or Thrace, but which, in the fortune of<br />
  a soldier, a prelate, or a eunuch, might be often connected with<br />
  the powers of the church and state.

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Explanation

Detailed Explanation of the Excerpt from The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volume 5) by Edward Gibbon

This passage from Gibbon’s magnum opus examines the controversy over icon veneration (the worship of religious images) in the Byzantine Empire during the 8th and 9th centuries, a period marked by the Iconoclastic Controversy (726–843 AD). Gibbon, writing in the 18th century, adopts a skeptical, Enlightenment-era perspective, critiquing religious superstition while providing a historical account of how icon worship became entrenched in Christianity and why it faced opposition.

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1. Context of the Excerpt

Historical Background:

• The Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) was deeply Christian but faced internal divisions over religious practices, particularly the use of icons (sacred images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and saints).
• Iconoclasm (the destruction or rejection of religious images) emerged as a major theological and political conflict in the 8th century, led by emperors like Leo III (r. 717–741) and Constantine V (r. 741–775), who banned icons, arguing they violated the Second Commandment (Exodus 20:4: "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image").
• The Iconophiles (defenders of icons), led by monks and the Byzantine clergy, argued that icons were sacred symbols that aided devotion, not objects of worship in themselves.
• The controversy was also political: The Byzantines had lost vast territories (Syria, Palestine, Egypt) to the Muslim Arabs, who condemned icon worship as idolatry. Some Byzantines feared that God was punishing them for this practice.

Gibbon’s Perspective:

• Gibbon, a deist and critic of organized religion, views the controversy with irony and skepticism. He portrays the gradual acceptance of icon worship as a result of superstition, political maneuvering, and cultural differences rather than divine truth.
• His account reflects Enlightenment ideals, emphasizing rationalism, historical progress, and the dangers of religious fanaticism.

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2. Breakdown of the Excerpt with Analysis

A. The Gradual Acceptance of Icon Worship (First Paragraph)

"The worship of images had stolen into the church by insensible degrees, and each petty step was pleasing to the superstitious mind, as productive of comfort, and innocent of sin."

• Key Idea: Icon veneration was not an overnight doctrine but a slow, unquestioned development that seemed harmless at first.
• Literary Device:
  • "Stolen into the church" → Personification (as if icon worship sneaked in like a thief).
  • "Insensible degrees" → Suggests it happened without conscious resistance, implying passive acceptance.
  • "Superstitious mind" → Gibbon’s disdain for what he sees as irrational belief.
• Themes:
  • Religious corruption (the church straying from early Christian simplicity).
  • Psychological comfort (people found solace in tangible symbols).

"But in the beginning of the eighth century, in the full magnitude of the abuse, the more timorous Greeks were awakened by an apprehension, that under the mask of Christianity, they had restored the religion of their fathers..."

• Key Idea: By the 8th century, icon worship had become so extreme that some Byzantines feared they had reverted to paganism (ancient Greek polytheism, which used idols).
• Literary Device:
  • "Mask of Christianity" → Metaphor suggesting hypocrisy (true Christianity was being hidden).
  • "Timorous Greeks" → Irony; Gibbon implies their fear was justified but late.
• Themes:
  • Cultural memory (Byzantines saw parallels between Christian icons and pagan idols).
  • Religious syncretism (blending of old and new beliefs).

B. External Criticism: Jews and Muslims (First Paragraph Continued)

"They heard, with grief and impatience, the name of idolaters; the incessant charge of the Jews and Mahometans, who derived from the Law and the Koran an immortal hatred to graven images and all relative worship."

• Key Idea: Jews and Muslims (who had conquered former Byzantine lands) mocked Christians for icon worship, calling them idolaters.
• Historical Context:
  • Islam (founded in the 7th century) strictly forbade images in worship (aniconism).
  • Judaism also condemned idolatry (Exodus 20:4–5).
  • The Muslim conquests (630s–700s) made this criticism politically dangerous—if God favored the Muslims, was icon worship the reason?
• Literary Device:
  • "Incessant charge" → Emphasizes relentless criticism.
  • "Immortality hatred" → Hyperbole (suggests an eternal, unbridgeable divide).
• Themes:
  • Religious rivalry (Christianity vs. Islam/Judaism).
  • Theological insecurity (Byzantines questioned if their practices were divinely disapproved).

"The triumphant Mussulmans, who reigned at Damascus, and threatened Constantinople, cast into the scale of reproach the accumulated weight of truth and victory."

• Key Idea: The military success of Muslims made their criticism more persuasive—if God was on their side, perhaps they were right about icons.
• Literary Device:
  • "Scale of reproach" → Metaphor (weighing moral and military arguments).
  • "Accumulated weight of truth and victory" → Suggests divine favor for Islam.
• Themes:
  • Divine judgment (were military defeats a sign of God’s displeasure?).
  • Crisis of faith (Byzantines questioned their own practices).

C. The Fall of Edessa and the "Palladium" (Second Paragraph)

"The cities of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt had been fortified with the images of Christ, his mother, and his saints; and each city presumed on the hope or promise of miraculous defence. In a rapid conquest of ten years, the Arabs subdued those cities and these images; and, in their opinion, the Lord of Hosts pronounced a decisive judgment between the adoration and contempt of these mute and inanimate idols."

• Key Idea: Many Byzantine cities relied on icons for protection, believing they were miraculously defended. When the Muslims conquered these cities (630s–640s), it seemed like God had judged against icons.
• Historical Context:
  • Edessa was a major Christian city with a famous icon: the Mandylion (a cloth imprinted with Christ’s face, said to have miraculously protected the city).
  • When Edessa fell (briefly in the 7th century, permanently later), it was a theological shock.
• Literary Device:
  • "Mute and inanimate idols" → Sarcasm (Gibbon mocks the idea that lifeless images could defend cities).
  • "Lord of Hosts pronounced a decisive judgment" → Irony (suggests God sided with the Muslims).
• Themes:
  • Failed divine protection (icons did not save the cities).
  • Crisis of faith (if icons were powerless, why worship them?).

"After a servitude of three hundred years, the Palladium was yielded to the devotion of Constantinople, for a ransom of twelve thousand pounds of silver, the redemption of two hundred Mussulmans, and a perpetual truce for the territory of Edessa."

• Key Idea: The Mandylion (the "Palladium" of Edessa) was ransomed back in the 10th century (944 AD), but Gibbon implies this was too little, too late—the damage to icon worship’s reputation was done.
• Historical Context:
  • The return of the Mandylion was seen as a triumph of Orthodoxy, but Gibbon downplays its significance.
• Literary Device:
  • "Palladium" → Allusion to the sacred statue of Athena that protected Troy (suggesting false security).
• Themes:
  • Materialism in religion (icons became commodities, traded for money and prisoners).
  • Too late for reform (the controversy had already divided the empire).

D. The Debate Over Icons (Third Paragraph)

"In this season of distress and dismay, the eloquence of the monks was exercised in the defence of images; and they attempted to prove, that the sin and schism of the greatest part of the Orientals had forfeited the favor, and annihilated the virtue, of these precious symbols."

• Key Idea: Monks (Iconophiles) defended icons, arguing that heretics (non-Orthodox Christians) had lost God’s protection, not the icons themselves.
• Historical Context:
  • Monks were the strongest defenders of icons (they used them in prayer and saw them as spiritual tools).
  • Iconoclasts argued that early Christians did not use icons, so they were a later corruption.
• Literary Device:
  • "Eloquence of the monks" → Suggests rhetoric over reason.
  • "Annihilated the virtue" → Personification (as if icons had moral power that could be destroyed).
• Themes:
  • Theological excuses (blaming heretics rather than questioning icons).
  • Power of the clergy (monks shaped public opinion).

"But they were now opposed by the murmurs of many simple or rational Christians, who appealed to the evidence of texts, of facts, and of the primitive times, and secretly desired the reformation of the church."

• Key Idea: Iconoclasts (and some reform-minded Christians) argued:
  1. Biblical texts (Old Testament forbids images).
  2. Historical facts (early Christians did not use icons).
  3. Primitive Christianity (the first centuries were icon-free).
• Literary Device:
  • "Simple or rational Christians" → Contrast (some were uneducated but sincere, others intellectual critics).
  • "Secretly desired" → Implies suppressed dissent (many feared speaking out).
• Themes:
  • Call for reform (a return to "pure" Christianity).
  • Conflict between tradition and scripture.

E. Regional and Cultural Divisions (Final Paragraph)

"As the worship of images had never been established by any general or positive law, its progress in the Eastern empire had been retarded, or accelerated, by the differences of men and manners, the local degrees of refinement, and the personal characters of the bishops."

• Key Idea: Icon worship was not uniformly accepted—it depended on:
  • Urban vs. rural (cities like Constantinople embraced it; rural areas resisted).
  • Cultural refinement (elites promoted it; commoners were skeptical).
  • Individual bishops (some encouraged icons, others opposed them).
• Literary Device:
  • "Retarded, or accelerated" → Antithesis (contrasting speeds of acceptance).
• Themes:
  • Cultural relativism (religious practices vary by region).
  • Lack of central authority (no universal law meant chaotic adoption).

"The splendid devotion was fondly cherished by the levity of the capital, and the inventive genius of the Byzantine clergy; while the rude and remote districts of Asia were strangers to this innovation of sacred luxury."

• Key Idea:
  • Constantinople (the capital) loved icons as artistic and spiritual objects.
  • Rural areas (Anatolia, Armenia) saw them as foreign and unnecessary.
• Literary Device:
  • "Sacred luxury" → Oxymoron (suggests excessive, almost decadent piety).
  • "Rude and remote districts" → Pejorative (Gibbon implies they were backward but perhaps wiser).
• Themes:
  • Urban sophistication vs. rural simplicity.
  • Innovation vs. tradition.

"Many large congregations of Gnostics and Arians maintained, after their conversion, the simple worship which had preceded their separation; and the Armenians, the most warlike subjects of Rome, were not reconciled, in the twelfth century, to the sight of images."

• Key Idea:
  • Former heretics (Gnostics, Arians) kept their icon-free worship even after rejoining Orthodoxy.
  • Armenians (a militaristic people) rejected icons as late as the 12th century.
• Historical Context:
  • Gnostics and Arians were early Christian sects that rejected material representations of the divine.
  • Armenia was a frontier region with strong anti-icon traditions.
• Literary Device:
  • "Most warlike subjects" → Implies practical, no-nonsense people saw icons as useless.
• Themes:
  • Persistence of dissent (not all Christians accepted icons).
  • Cultural resistance (some groups never fully assimilated).

"These various denominations of men afforded a fund of prejudice and aversion, of small account in the villages of Anatolia or Thrace, but which, in the fortune of a soldier, a prelate, or a eunuch, might be often connected with the powers of the church and state."

• Key Idea: While local disagreements over icons were minor, when influential figures (generals, bishops, court officials) took sides, it became a major political issue.
• Historical Context:
  • Iconoclasm was often enforced by emperors (Leo III, Constantine V) who saw it as a way to centralize power (monks and bishops who controlled icons were a threat).
  • Eunuchs (court officials) often played key roles in Byzantine politics.
• Literary Device:
  • "Fund of prejudice and aversion" → Metaphor (a reservoir of conflict waiting to explode).
• Themes:
  • Religion and politics intertwined.
  • Power struggles within the empire.

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3. Literary Devices & Gibbon’s Style

Gibbon’s prose is elegant, ironic, and subtly critical. Key devices in this passage:

Device	Example	Effect
Irony	"the Lord of Hosts pronounced a decisive judgment" (Muslims defeating Christians)	Mocks the idea that God favored one side.
Sarcasm	"mute and inanimate idols"	Dismisses icons as powerless objects.
Metaphor	"stolen into the church", "scale of reproach"	Makes abstract ideas vivid.
Antithesis	"retarded, or accelerated"	Highlights contradictions in icon worship’s spread.
Oxymoron	"sacred luxury"	Criticizes the excessive nature of icon veneration.
Allusion	"Palladium" (referencing Troy’s sacred statue)	Compares icons to false protections.

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4. Themes in the Excerpt

1. Religious Corruption & Superstition

   • Gibbon portrays icon worship as a degeneration from early Christianity, fueled by superstition and emotional comfort rather than reason.

2. Conflict Between Faith and Reason

   • Iconophiles relied on tradition and miracles; Iconoclasts appealed to scripture and history.
   • Gibbon sides with the rationalists, seeing icon worship as irrational.

3. Political and Religious Power Struggles

   • The controversy was not just theological but also about who controlled the church (emperors vs. monks).

4. Cultural and Regional Divides

   • Urban elites embraced icons; rural and frontier groups resisted them, showing diverse Christian practices.

5. Divine Judgment and Military Defeat

   • The Muslim conquests made Byzantines question whether God was punishing them for idolatry.

6. The Danger of Religious Innovation

   • Gibbon suggests that unchecked religious changes (like icon worship) can lead to division and weakness.

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5. Significance of the Passage

• Historical: Gibbon provides a detailed account of how icon worship became controversial, linking it to Byzantine decline.
• Theological: He highlights the lack of scriptural basis for icons, a debate that continues in Protestant vs. Catholic/Orthodox discussions.
• Political: Shows how religious disputes could destabilize an empire, a warning relevant to modern religious conflicts.
• Enlightenment Critique: Gibbon’s skepticism reflects 18th-century rationalism, questioning blind faith and superstition.

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6. Conclusion: Gibbon’s View on Icon Worship

Gibbon does not take a side in the theological debate but criticizes both extremes:

• Iconophiles are superstitious, clinging to man-made objects for false security.
• Iconoclasts, while more rational, are late to realize the problem and often motivated by politics.

His greater point is that religious disputes weakened the Byzantine Empire, making it vulnerable to internal strife and external threats (like Islam). The passage exemplifies Gibbon’s broader thesis in Decline and Fall: that Rome fell not just from barbarian invasions, but from internal decay—including religious fanaticism.

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Final Thought:

Gibbon’s ironic, detached tone invites readers to question religious dogma while appreciating the complexity of history. His account remains one of the most influential on the Iconoclastic Controversy, blending scholarship with skepticism.