Gutenberg Articles

Appearance

Excerpt ​

Excerpt from History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 2, by Edward Gibbon

Whatever symptoms of Christian piety might transpire in the discourses
or actions of Constantine, he persevered till he was near forty years
of age in the practice of the established religion; and the same conduct
which in the court of Nicomedia might be imputed to his fear, could be
ascribed only to the inclination or policy of the sovereign of Gaul.
His liberality restored and enriched the temples of the gods; the medals
which issued from his Imperial mint are impressed with the figures and
attributes of Jupiter and Apollo, of Mars and Hercules; and his filial
piety increased the council of Olympus by the solemn apotheosis of his
father Constantius. But the devotion of Constantine was more peculiarly
directed to the genius of the Sun, the Apollo of Greek and Roman
mythology; and he was pleased to be represented with the symbols of
the God of Light and Poetry. The unerring shafts of that deity, the
brightness of his eyes, his laurel wreath, immortal beauty, and elegant
accomplishments, seem to point him out as the patron of a young
hero. The altars of Apollo were crowned with the votive offerings of
Constantine; and the credulous multitude were taught to believe, that
the emperor was permitted to behold with mortal eyes the visible majesty
of their tutelar deity; and that, either walking or in a vision, he was
blessed with the auspicious omens of a long and victorious reign. The
Sun was universally celebrated as the invincible guide and protector of
Constantine; and the Pagans might reasonably expect that the insulted
god would pursue with unrelenting vengeance the impiety of his
ungrateful favorite.

As long as Constantine exercised a limited sovereignty over the
provinces of Gaul, his Christian subjects were protected by the
authority, and perhaps by the laws, of a prince, who wisely left to
the gods the care of vindicating their own honor. If we may credit the
assertion of Constantine himself, he had been an indignant spectator
of the savage cruelties which were inflicted, by the hands of Roman
soldiers, on those citizens whose religion was their only crime. In the
East and in the West, he had seen the different effects of severity
and indulgence; and as the former was rendered still more odious by the
example of Galerius, his implacable enemy, the latter was recommended to
his imitation by the authority and advice of a dying father. The son of
Constantius immediately suspended or repealed the edicts of persecution,
and granted the free exercise of their religious ceremonies to all those
who had already professed themselves members of the church. They were
soon encouraged to depend on the favor as well as on the justice of
their sovereign, who had imbibed a secret and sincere reverence for the
name of Christ, and for the God of the Christians.

About five months after the conquest of Italy, the emperor made a solemn
and authentic declaration of his sentiments by the celebrated edict
of Milan, which restored peace to the Catholic church. In the personal
interview of the two western princes, Constantine, by the ascendant
of genius and power, obtained the ready concurrence of his colleague,
Licinius; the union of their names and authority disarmed the fury of
Maximin; and after the death of the tyrant of the East, the edict of
Milan was received as a general and fundamental law of the Roman world.

Explanation ​

Detailed Explanation of the Excerpt from The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volume 2) by Edward Gibbon ​

This passage from Gibbon’s magnum opus examines the religious policies of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306–337 AD), particularly his gradual shift from traditional Roman paganism to Christianity. Gibbon, an 18th-century Enlightenment historian, is known for his skeptical and often critical view of religion, and this excerpt reflects his analysis of Constantine’s motivations—whether political, personal, or sincere—in adopting Christianity.

Context of the Excerpt ​

  1. Historical Background:

    • Constantine rose to power during the Tetrarchy, a system of divided rule established by Diocletian. After his father Constantius I’s death (306 AD), Constantine was proclaimed emperor by his troops in York.
    • The Great Persecution (303–313 AD), initiated by Diocletian and continued by Galerius, had targeted Christians across the empire. Constantine’s predecessor in the West, Maxentius, and his rival in the East, Maximinus Daia, were hostile to Christianity.
    • Constantine’s conversion to Christianity (traditionally dated to his vision of the Chi-Rho before the Battle of Milvian Bridge, 312 AD) marked a turning point in Roman religious history. However, Gibbon questions the sincerity and timing of this conversion.

  2. Gibbon’s Perspective:

    • Gibbon, writing in the Age of Reason, often portrays religious conversions—especially those of rulers—as politically expedient rather than spiritually genuine.
    • He suggests that Constantine’s early pagan sympathies (particularly his devotion to Sol Invictus, the Sun God) were either a calculated policy or a personal preference before his later Christian alignment.

Themes in the Excerpt ​

  1. Religious Syncretism and Political Pragmatism:

    • Constantine’s early reign shows a blending of pagan and Christian elements. Gibbon emphasizes that, despite later Christian legends, Constantine actively supported paganism well into his 40s.
    • His restoration of temples, minting of coins with Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, and Hercules, and even the deification of his father Constantius (a traditional Roman practice) suggest he was not yet a Christian in deed, even if he harbored private sympathies.

  2. The Cult of Sol Invictus (The Unconquered Sun):

    • Gibbon highlights Constantine’s special devotion to Apollo/Sol, the sun god, who was associated with light, victory, and imperial power.
    • The description of Apollo’s "unerring shafts," "brightness of his eyes," and "laurel wreath" paints him as an ideal patron for a young, ambitious emperor seeking divine favor.
    • The claim that Constantine saw a vision of Apollo (or Sol) mirrors later Christian accounts of his vision of the Cross, raising questions about which came first—or whether both were propaganda tools.

  3. The Shift Toward Christian Toleration:

    • Gibbon contrasts Constantine’s early pagan piety with his later protection of Christians, suggesting a gradual, calculated transition.
    • The Edict of Milan (313 AD), issued jointly with Licinius, officially ended persecution and granted religious freedom to Christians.
    • Gibbon notes that Constantine may have been influenced by:
      • Personal revulsion at the brutality of the Great Persecution (which he claims to have witnessed).
      • Political strategy: Seeing that indulgence (tolerance) was more effective than severity (persecution) in maintaining stability.
      • Filial piety: Following the advice of his father Constantius, who was known for his mild treatment of Christians.

  4. The Role of Power and Propaganda:

    • Gibbon implies that Constantine’s public religious stance was shaped by expediency.
    • The Edict of Milan was not just a moral decision but a political maneuver to unify the empire under his rule, especially after defeating Maxentius (312 AD) and Maximinus Daia (313 AD).
    • The credulous multitude (common people) were easily swayed by divine visions, whether of Apollo or Christ, suggesting that religious narratives were tools of control.

Literary Devices & Stylistic Features ​

  1. Irony & Skepticism:

    • Gibbon’s dry, ironic tone undermines the piety of Constantine’s actions.
      • "The credulous multitude were taught to believe..." → Implies that Constantine’s visions were fabricated or exaggerated for public consumption.
      • "The ungrateful favorite" → Suggests that Constantine’s later abandonment of paganism was a betrayal of the gods who had supposedly favored him.

  2. Contrast & Juxtaposition:

    • Pagan vs. Christian devotion:
      • Early Constantine: Restores temples, mints pagan coins, deifies his father.
      • Later Constantine: Issues the Edict of Milan, protects Christians.
    • Severity vs. Indulgence:
      • Galerius’ persecution (harsh, ineffective) vs. Constantine’s tolerance (strategic, successful).

  3. Rhetorical Questions & Implied Criticism:

    • "The same conduct... might be imputed to his fear, could be ascribed only to the inclination or policy..." → Gibbon questions Constantine’s true motives, leaving it ambiguous whether he acted out of fear, personal belief, or political calculation.

  4. Classical Allusions & Mythological Imagery:

    • The detailed description of Apollo ("unerring shafts," "visible majesty") evokes Homeric and Virgilian epic, reinforcing the grandeur of pagan tradition that Constantine initially upheld.
    • The apotheosis of Constantius (elevating him to godhood) was a traditional Roman practice, showing Constantine’s early adherence to imperial pagan customs.

  5. Gibbon’s Enlightenment Rationale:

    • He dismisses supernatural claims (such as Constantine’s visions) as propaganda or mass delusion.
    • His secular, analytical approach treats religion as a political instrument rather than a divine truth.

Significance of the Passage ​

  1. Historical Importance:

    • This excerpt captures the transition from pagan Rome to Christian Rome, a pivotal moment in Western history.
    • The Edict of Milan (313 AD) marked the first official imperial tolerance of Christianity, setting the stage for its eventual dominance under Theodosius I (380 AD).

  2. Gibbon’s Argument on Religious Change:

    • Gibbon challenges the idea of sudden, sincere conversion, instead presenting Constantine’s shift as gradual and politically motivated.
    • This aligns with his broader thesis in Decline and Fall: that religious changes often served imperial power rather than pure faith.

  3. Influence on Later Historiography:

    • Gibbon’s skeptical, secular approach influenced modern historians to question the sincerity of religious conversions in antiquity.
    • His emphasis on propaganda and power remains a key lens for analyzing imperial religion.

  4. Theological & Political Debates:

    • The passage fuels ongoing debates:
      • Was Constantine a true Christian or a pragmatic ruler?
      • Did his vision of the Cross really happen, or was it retroactive legend?
      • How much did political unity (rather than faith) drive his policies?

Conclusion: Gibbon’s Portrayal of Constantine ​

Gibbon’s excerpt presents Constantine as a complex, calculating figure who navigated religious change with political acumen. While later Christian sources (like Eusebius of Caesarea) portray his conversion as a divine miracle, Gibbon strips away the supernatural, framing it as a strategic evolution.

  • Early Constantine: A devotee of Sol Invictus, using pagan imagery to legitimize his rule.
  • Later Constantine: A protector of Christians, not out of pure faith, but because tolerance strengthened his empire.
  • Gibbon’s Verdict: Religion was a tool of statecraft, and Constantine’s true beliefs remain inscrutable—hidden behind coins, edicts, and legends.

This passage exemplifies Gibbon’s Enlightenment historiography—rational, critical, and wary of religious dogma—while also providing a nuanced portrait of one of history’s most consequential rulers.