Article #19-2 | Gutenberg Articles

Excerpt

Excerpt from The Song of Hiawatha, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

VOCABULARY

Adjidau’mo, the red squirrel
Ahdeek’, the reindeer
Ahmeek’, the beaver
Annemee’kee, the thunder
Apuk’wa, a bulrush
Baim-wa’wa, the sound of the thunder
Bemah’gut, the grape-vine
Chemaun’, a birch canoe
Chetowaik’, the plover
Chibia’bos, a musician; friend of Hiawatha;
ruler of the Land of Spirits
Dahin’da, the bull frog
Dush-kwo-ne’-she or Kwo-ne’-she,
the dragon fly
Esa, shame upon you
Ewa-yea’, lullaby
Gitche Gu’mee, The Big-Sea-Water,
Lake Superior
Gitche Man’ito, the Great Spirit,
the Master of Life
Gushkewau’, the darkness
Hiawa’tha, the Prophet, the Teacher,
son of Mudjekeewis, the West-Wind and Wenonah,
daughter of Nokomis
Ia’goo, a great boaster and story-teller
Inin’ewug, men, or pawns in the Game of the Bowl
Ishkoodah’, fire, a comet
Jee’bi, a ghost, a spirit
Joss’akeed, a prophet
Kabibonok’ka, the North-Wind
Ka’go, do not
Kahgahgee’, the raven
Kaw, no
Kaween’, no indeed
Kayoshk’, the sea-gull
Kee’go, a fish
Keeway’din, the Northwest wind, the Home-wind
Kena’beek, a serpent
Keneu’, the great war-eagle
Keno’zha, the pickerel
Ko’ko-ko’ho, the owl
Kuntasoo’, the Game of Plumstones
Kwa’sind, the Strong Man
Kwo-ne’-she, or Dush-kwo-ne’-she, the dragon-fly
Mahnahbe’zee, the swan
Mahng, the loon
Mahnomo’nee, wild rice
Ma’ma, the woodpecker
Me’da, a medicine-man
Meenah’ga, the blueberry
Megissog’won, the great Pearl-Feather,
a magician, and the Manito of Wealth
Meshinau’wa, a pipe-bearer
Minjekah’wun, Hiawatha’s mittens
Minneha’ha, Laughing Water; wife of Hiawatha;
a water-fall in a stream running into the
Mississippi between Fort Snelling and the
Falls of St. Anthony
Minne-wa’wa, a pleasant sound, as of the wind
in the trees
Mishe-Mo’kwa, the Great Bear
Mishe-Nah’ma, the Great Sturgeon
Miskodeed’, the Spring-Beauty, the Claytonia Virginica
Monda’min, Indian corn
Moon of Bright Nights, April
Moon of Leaves, May
Moon of Strawberries, June
Moon of the Falling Leaves, September
Moon of Snow-shoes, November
Mudjekee’wis, the West-Wind; father of Hiawatha
Mudway-aush’ka, sound of waves on a shore
Mushkoda’sa, the grouse
Nah’ma, the sturgeon
Nah’ma-wusk, spearmint
Na’gow Wudj’oo, the Sand Dunes of Lake Superior
Nee-ba-naw’-baigs, water-spirits
Nenemoo’sha, sweetheart
Nepah’win, sleep
Noko’mis, a grandmother, mother of Wenonah
No’sa, my father
Nush’ka, look! look!
Odah’min, the strawberry
Okahha’wis, the fresh-water herring
Ome’mee, the pigeon
Ona’gon, a bowl
Opechee’, the robin
Osse’o, Son of the Evening Star
Owais’sa, the blue-bird
Oweenee’, wife of Osseo
Ozawa’beek, a round piece of brass or copper in the Game of the Bowl
Pah-puk-kee’na, the grasshopper
Pau’guk, death
Pau-Puk-Kee’wis, the handsome Yenadizze,
the son of Storm Fool
Pe’boan, Winter
Pem’ican, meat of the deer or buffalo dried and pounded
Pezhekee’, the bison
Pishnekuh’, the brant
Pone’mah, hereafter
Puggawau’gun, a war-club
Puk-Wudj’ies, little wild men of the woods; pygmies
Sah-sah-je’wun, rapids
Segwun’, Spring
Sha’da, the pelican
Shahbo’min, the gooseberry
Shah-shah, long ago
Shaugoda’ya, a coward
Shawgashee’, the craw-fish
Shawonda’see, the South-Wind
Shaw-shaw, the swallow
Shesh’ebwug, ducks; pieces in the Game
of the Bowl
Shin’gebis, the diver, or grebe
Showain’neme’shin, pity me
Shuh-shuh-gah’, the blue heron
Soan-ge-ta’ha, strong-hearted
Subbeka’she, the spider
Sugge’me, the mosquito
To’tem, family coat-of-arms
Ugh, yes
Ugudwash’, the sun-fish
Unktahee’, the God of Water
Wabas’so, the rabbit, the North
Wabe’no, a magician, a juggler
Wabe’no-wusk, yarrow
Wa’bun, the East-Wind
Wa’bun An’nung, the Star of the East, the Morning Star
Wahono’win, a cry of lamentation
Wah-wah-tay’see, the fire-fly
Waubewy’on, a white skin wrapper
Wa’wa, the wild goose
Waw-be-wa’wa, the white goose
Wawonais’sa, the whippoorwill
Way-muk-kwa’na, the caterpillar
Weno’nah, the eldest daughter; Hiawatha’s mother, daughter of Nokomis
Yenadiz’ze, an idler and gambler; an Indian dandy

The End

Explanation

**Analysis of The Song of Hiawatha (Excerpt) by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow**

Context & Background

The Song of Hiawatha (1855) is an epic poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, inspired by the legends of the Ojibwe (Chippewa) and other Native American tribes. While Longfellow drew from oral traditions—particularly those recorded by ethnologist Henry Rowe Schoolcraft—he also took creative liberties, blending various myths into a cohesive narrative. The poem follows the life of Hiawatha, a wise and noble leader, as he brings peace, knowledge, and civilization to his people.

The excerpt provided is not a direct passage from the poem but rather a glossary of terms Longfellow included to help readers understand the Ojibwe and Algonquian words he incorporated. This glossary is significant because it reflects Longfellow’s attempt to:

Preserve and romanticize Indigenous culture—though through a Euro-American lens.
Create an immersive, mythic atmosphere by using Native terminology for nature, spirits, and characters.
Bridge cultural gaps by providing definitions, making the poem accessible to 19th-century readers unfamiliar with Indigenous languages.

While Longfellow’s work has been criticized for cultural appropriation and inaccuracies, the glossary itself serves as a linguistic and cultural artifact, offering insight into how Indigenous words and concepts were interpreted (and sometimes misrepresented) in 19th-century American literature.

Themes in the Glossary (and the Poem as a Whole)

Even in this vocabulary list, key themes of The Song of Hiawatha emerge:

Harmony with Nature
- Many terms describe animals (Ahmeek’—beaver, Kahgahgee’—raven), plants (Bemah’gut—grape-vine, Monda’min—corn), and natural phenomena (Gitche Gu’mee—Lake Superior, Annemee’kee—thunder).
- This reflects the Ojibwe worldview, where humans, animals, and spirits are interconnected. Hiawatha’s teachings often emphasize living in balance with the natural world.
Spirituality and the Supernatural
- The glossary includes deities (Gitche Man’ito—the Great Spirit), spirits (Jee’bi—ghost, Nee-ba-naw’-baigs—water-spirits), and magical beings (Megissog’won—the Manito of Wealth, Puk-Wudj’ies—little wild men of the woods).
- Longfellow blends Christian and Indigenous spiritual concepts, portraying Hiawatha as a prophet-like figure who communicates with the divine.
Cultural Practices and Traditions
- Terms like Kuntasoo’—Game of Plumstones and Ona’gon—a bowl reference Indigenous games and rituals.
- Pem’ican (dried meat) and Minneha’ha (Laughing Water, Hiawatha’s wife) highlight daily life and social structures.
- The inclusion of moon names (Moon of Strawberries, Moon of Snow-shoes) shows the Ojibwe lunar calendar, tying time to natural cycles.
Heroism and Leadership
- Hiawatha is described as "the Prophet, the Teacher, son of Mudjekeewis"—emphasizing his role as a cultural hero who brings wisdom and unity.
- Other figures like Kwa’sind (the Strong Man) and Chibia’bos (a musician and spirit ruler) represent idealized traits in Ojibwe storytelling.
Conflict and Morality
- Some terms suggest moral duality:
  - Ia’goo—a boaster (possibly a trickster figure).
  - Shaugoda’ya—a coward vs. Soan-ge-ta’ha—strong-hearted.
- The poem itself includes struggles against evil spirits (like Megissog’won) and personal trials (e.g., Hiawatha’s fasting and visions).

Literary Devices in the Glossary (and the Poem)

While the glossary itself is not poetic, it foreshadows the literary techniques Longfellow uses in The Song of Hiawatha:

Alliteration & Musicality
- Many Ojibwe words have a rhythmic, almost incantatory quality (e.g., Baim-wa’wa, Mudway-aush’ka, Wah-wah-tay’see).
- The poem itself is written in trochaic tetrameter (a falling rhythm: DA-dum DA-dum DA-dum DA-dum), mimicking the cadence of Indigenous oral storytelling.
Personification & Animism
- Natural elements are given spiritual agency:
  - Shawonda’see—the South-Wind (as if it were a living being).
  - Unktahee’—the God of Water (personifying a force of nature).
- This aligns with Ojibwe animism, where rivers, winds, and animals have spirits.
Symbolism
- Animals as symbols:
  - Mahng—the loon (often a symbol of wilderness and solitude).
  - Mishe-Mo’kwa—the Great Bear (strength, but also a constellation in Ojibwe astronomy).
- Directions as spiritual forces:
  - Wa’bun—the East-Wind (associated with dawn and renewal).
  - Kabibonok’ka—the North-Wind (harshness, winter).
Repetition & Refrain
- The poem frequently repeats phrases (e.g., "By the shores of Gitche Gumee"), a technique common in oral epics.
- The glossary’s repetition of sounds (e.g., Dush-kwo-ne’-she / Kwo-ne’-she) mirrors this musicality.
Juxtaposition of Beauty and Danger
- Some terms evoke serenity (Minne-wa’wa—a pleasant sound), while others suggest threat (Pau-Puk-Kee’wis—the handsome Yenadizze, a trickster).
- This duality appears in the poem’s episodes, such as Hiawatha’s peaceful teachings contrasted with battles against evil spirits.

Significance of the Glossary

Cultural Preservation (with Limitations)
- Longfellow’s glossary documents Ojibwe words at a time when Indigenous languages were being suppressed.
- However, his romanticized and sometimes inaccurate portrayals reflect colonial-era stereotypes (e.g., the "noble savage" trope).
Literary Innovation
- By integrating Native terms, Longfellow created a hybrid epic—blending European poetic forms with Indigenous storytelling.
- This influenced later American literature, particularly works that sought to mythologize the "New World."
Controversy and Criticism
- Modern scholars argue that Longfellow appropriated Ojibwe culture, simplifying complex traditions for a white audience.
- Some Ojibwe writers (like Gerald Vizenor) have reclaimed and recontextualized Hiawatha’s story in their own works.
Linguistic and Historical Value
- The glossary serves as a historical record of how Ojibwe words were transcribed in the 19th century.
- It also highlights lost or endangered terms (e.g., Miskodeed’—Spring-Beauty, a flower name rarely used today).

Key Takeaways from the Text Itself

Nature as a Living Entity
- The glossary’s emphasis on animals, plants, and celestial bodies reinforces the poem’s central idea that the world is alive with spirits.
- Example: Gitche Man’ito (the Great Spirit) is not an abstract god but a presence in nature.
The Role of the Hero
- Hiawatha is framed as a cultural mediator—between humans and spirits, tradition and progress.
- His lineage (son of Mudjekeewis, the West-Wind) ties him to natural forces, emphasizing his mythic status.
Oral Tradition in Written Form
- The glossary’s phonetic spellings (e.g., Ewa-yea’—lullaby) attempt to capture the sound of Ojibwe, preserving an oral tradition in text.
- This mirrors Longfellow’s broader goal: to immortalize Indigenous stories in a European literary format.
Cyclical Time
- The moon names (Moon of Strawberries, Moon of Falling Leaves) reflect an Indigenous concept of time as cyclical, tied to seasons and nature’s rhythms.
- This contrasts with the linear time of Western narratives.

Conclusion: Why This Glossary Matters

While The Song of Hiawatha is a product of its time—flawed by cultural misrepresentations—this glossary offers a window into:

How 19th-century America viewed Indigenous cultures (both with fascination and condescension).
The power of language in shaping myth and identity.
The enduring appeal of epic storytelling, where heroes like Hiawatha embody universal struggles for wisdom and harmony.

For modern readers, the glossary invites critical reflection:

How do we honor Indigenous voices without appropriating them?
What gets lost (or gained) when oral traditions are written down?
How can literature bridge cultures without erasing their distinctions?

Longfellow’s work remains a contested but important text—one that challenges us to think about representation, myth-making, and the ethics of storytelling.

Further Reading:

Ojibwe Waasa Inaabidaa (We Look in All Directions) – a modern Ojibwe language and culture resource.
The Mishomis Book by Edward Benton-Banai – a more authentic collection of Ojibwe teachings.
Gerald Vizenor’s works – for a postcolonial critique of Longfellow’s Hiawatha.

Questions

Question 1

The glossary’s inclusion of terms like Gitche Man’ito (the Great Spirit) alongside Jee’bi (a ghost) and Puk-Wudj’ies (little wild men of the woods) most strongly suggests that Longfellow’s portrayal of Ojibwe spirituality is structured to:

A. emphasize the hierarchical supremacy of a monotheistic deity over lesser, chaotic spirits.
B. present a syncretic fusion of Christian angelology and Indigenous animism.
C. catalog supernatural entities with the same empirical detachment as natural phenomena.
D. reflect an animistic worldview where spiritual agency is distributed across a continuum of beings.
E. expose the absurdity of Indigenous beliefs by juxtaposing divine and folkloric figures.

Question 2

The repetition of variant spellings (e.g., Dush-kwo-ne’-she and Kwo-ne’-she for the dragonfly) primarily serves to:

A. highlight Longfellow’s meticulous philological research into dialectal variations.
B. underscore the instability of oral traditions when transcribed into written form.
C. create a poetic effect of rhythmic redundancy akin to Ojibwe song structures.
D. signal the glossary’s function as a provisional, rather than authoritative, linguistic record.
E. mimic the fluid, adaptive nature of Indigenous naming practices in response to colonial encounter.

Question 3

The term Pau-Puk-Kee’wis ("the handsome Yenadizze, the son of Storm Fool") introduces a narrative tension most aligned with which of the following archetypal roles?

A. The sage whose wisdom is tested by hubris.
B. The trickster whose charm masks disruptive potential.
C. The exiled prince seeking to reclaim his birthright.
D. The scapegoat burdened with communal sins.
E. The martyr whose suffering redeems a flawed society.

Question 4

The glossary’s organization—alphabetical, with definitions but no narrative context—paradoxically undermines Longfellow’s poetic project by:

A. reducing sacred terms to lexicographical entries, stripping them of ritual significance.
B. imposing a European classificatory system onto a culture that prioritizes relational knowledge.
C. privileging literal meaning over the metaphorical and symbolic layers central to Ojibwe storytelling.
D. fragmenting a cohesive oral tradition into discrete units, obscuring their interconnectedness.
E. erasing the gendered and kinship-based dimensions of the terms’ original usage.

Question 5

If we interpret Minneha’ha ("Laughing Water") not merely as a proper noun for Hiawatha’s wife but as a metaphorical encapsulation of Ojibwe cosmology, its placement in the glossary alongside terms like Sah-sah-je’wun (rapids) and Mudway-aush’ka (sound of waves) suggests that Longfellow is:

A. framing water as a dynamic, vocal agent in the natural world, embodying both joy and power.
B. contrasting feminine fluidity with the rigid, patriarchal structures of Ojibwe society.
C. employing hydrological terms to map the emotional arc of Hiawatha’s heroic journey.
D. subtly critiquing the romanticization of nature by exposing its indifference to human suffering.
E. signaling the subjugation of Indigenous women through their association with passive, decorative elements.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: D

Why D is most correct: The glossary’s inclusion of Gitche Man’ito (a supreme spirit), Jee’bi (ghosts), and Puk-Wudj’ies (mischievous forest beings) without hierarchical distinction aligns with an animistic framework, where spiritual agency is distributed across a spectrum of entities—from divine to folkloric—rather than concentrated in a single deity. This reflects Ojibwe traditions where sacredness is immanent in the world, not confined to a transcendent god. Longfellow’s presentation (however romanticized) preserves this continuum of being, avoiding a rigid Christian binary of sacred/profane.