Article #348-2 | Gutenberg Articles

Excerpt

Excerpt from Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica, by Hesiod

The early Greek epic—that is, poetry as a natural and popular, and not
(as it became later) an artificial and academic literary form—passed
through the usual three phases, of development, of maturity, and of
decline.

No fragments which can be identified as belonging to the first period
survive to give us even a general idea of the history of the earliest
epic, and we are therefore thrown back upon the evidence of analogy
from other forms of literature and of inference from the two great
epics which have come down to us. So reconstructed, the earliest period
appears to us as a time of slow development in which the characteristic
epic metre, diction, and structure grew up slowly from crude elements
and were improved until the verge of maturity was reached.

The second period, which produced the Iliad and the Odyssey, needs
no description here: but it is very important to observe the effect of
these poems on the course of post-Homeric epic. As the supreme
perfection and universality of the Iliad and the Odyssey cast into
oblivion whatever pre-Homeric poets had essayed, so these same
qualities exercised a paralysing influence over the successors of
Homer. If they continued to sing like their great predecessor of
romantic themes, they were drawn as by a kind of magnetic attraction
into the Homeric style and manner of treatment, and became mere echoes
of the Homeric voice: in a word, Homer had so completely exhausted the
epic genre, that after him further efforts were doomed to be merely
conventional. Only the rare and exceptional genius of Vergil and Milton
could use the Homeric medium without loss of individuality: and this
quality none of the later epic poets seem to have possessed. Freedom
from the domination of the great tradition could only be found by
seeking new subjects, and such freedom was really only illusionary,
since romantic subjects alone are suitable for epic treatment.

Explanation

This excerpt from the introduction to Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns, and Homerica (likely written by a scholar or translator, such as Hugh G. Evelyn-White, whose 1914 Loeb Classical Library edition includes such prefatory material) offers a concise but dense historical and critical assessment of the development of early Greek epic poetry. Below is a detailed breakdown of the passage, focusing on its arguments, themes, literary context, and implications, with an emphasis on the text itself.

1. The Three Phases of Greek Epic Poetry

The passage outlines a teleological model (a progression toward a predetermined end) for the evolution of Greek epic, dividing it into three stages:

Development (Early/Pre-Homeric Period): The text acknowledges that no surviving fragments exist from this phase, forcing scholars to rely on "analogy from other forms of literature" and "inference" from the Iliad and Odyssey. This period is characterized as one of slow, organic growth, where the epic meter (dactylic hexameter), diction (formulaic phrases), and structure evolved from "crude elements" into a refined form. The language here ("slow development," "improved until the verge of maturity") suggests a natural, almost biological process—epic poetry as a living tradition rather than a fixed art form.
- Key Implication: The absence of direct evidence means our understanding of this period is reconstructive and speculative, based on later works. The passage implies that epic poetry was originally oral, communal, and fluid, not yet the "artificial and academic" form it later became.
Maturity (Homeric Period – Iliad and Odyssey): The text skips detailed description of this phase (assuming the reader’s familiarity with Homer), but its significance lies in its paralyzing effect on later epic. The Iliad and Odyssey are presented as unmatched in "perfection and universality", so dominant that they erased earlier attempts ("cast into oblivion whatever pre-Homeric poets had essayed"). This framing elevates Homer to a cultural monolith, whose genius stifled innovation by setting an impossible standard.
- Literary Device: The use of "supreme perfection" and "universality" is hyperbolic, reinforcing the idea of Homer as an insurmountable figure. The metaphor of "magnetic attraction" suggests an inevitable, almost gravitational pull toward Homeric imitation.
Decline (Post-Homeric Period): After Homer, epic poets are portrayed as doomed to be "mere echoes", trapped in conventionality. The passage argues that Homer exhausted the epic genre, leaving later poets with two failed options:
1. Imitation: Adopting Homer’s "style and manner" led to derivative work (e.g., the Epic Cycle, later Greek epics).
2. Innovation: Seeking "new subjects" offered only "illusionary freedom", since epic’s core is romantic themes (heroes, wars, quests), which Homer had already perfected.
- Exceptions: The rare geniuses like Vergil (Aeneid) and Milton (Paradise Lost) could transcend imitation, but most post-Homeric poets lacked this ability. This implies that true originality in epic was nearly impossible after Homer.

2. Key Themes and Arguments

The Burden of Tradition: The passage presents Homer as both a culmination and a curse. His perfection froze the genre, making later epic either repetitive or forced. This reflects a broader anxiety in literary history about the weight of canonical works (e.g., how Shakespeare overshadowed later drama, or how the Bible influenced Western literature).
Oral vs. Literary Culture: The contrast between early epic as "natural and popular" and later epic as "artificial and academic" highlights the shift from oral tradition to written literature. The early phase is organic and communal; the later phase is self-conscious and imitative.
Genre Exhaustion: The idea that Homer "exhausted" epic suggests that certain artistic forms have finite possibilities. Once a genre reaches its peak, further work becomes either repetitive or inferior. This aligns with later theories of literary decline (e.g., T.S. Eliot’s idea of tradition as a limiting force).
The Illusion of Freedom: The claim that "freedom was really only illusionary" is pessimistic: even when poets avoided Homeric themes, they were still bound by the requirements of epic (grand scale, heroic subjects). This implies that genre itself is a constraint.

3. Literary Devices and Rhetorical Strategies

Metaphor and Personification:
- "Magnetic attraction" → Homer’s influence is inescapable and natural.
- "Paralysing influence" → His genius stifles creativity in successors.
- "Echoes of the Homeric voice" → Later poets are ghosts of Homer, not original voices.
Hyperbole:
- "Supreme perfection and universality" → Elevates Homer to almost divine status.
- "Completely exhausted the epic genre" → Suggests total creative depletion.
Contrast:
- Early (organic, developing) vs. Late (artificial, declining) → Reinforces the rise-and-fall narrative.
- Homer (genius) vs. Successors (echoes) → Highlights the gap between originality and imitation.
Allusion:
- References to Vergil and Milton as exceptions imply that only the greatest poets can escape Homer’s shadow, reinforcing the rarity of true innovation.

4. Historical and Literary Context

Oral Poetry Theory: The passage reflects early 20th-century scholarship (e.g., Milman Parry’s oral-formulaic theory), which argued that Homer’s epics were composed orally using repeated phrases (formulae). The idea of a "slow development" aligns with this view of epic as an evolving oral tradition.
Homer’s Canonical Status: By the time this was written (early 1900s), Homer was already the foundational text of Western literature. The passage reinforces the Homeric Question (debates over Homer’s authorship and the oral/written nature of the epics) by suggesting that his works erased earlier traditions.
Post-Homeric Epic: The Epic Cycle (e.g., The Thebaid, The Cypria) and later Greek epics (e.g., Apollonius’ Argonautica) were often seen as inferior imitations, which this passage explicitly argues.
Comparative Literature: The mention of Vergil and Milton places Homer in a transhistorical context, suggesting that his influence extended beyond Greece to Roman and English epic. This reflects the classical tradition’s dominance in Western literature.

5. Significance and Implications

For Classical Studies: The passage encapsulates a traditional (and somewhat pessimistic) view of literary history, where genius produces stagnation. It assumes that Homer’s perfection was unrepeatable, a perspective that later scholars (e.g., those studying reception theory) might challenge by examining how later poets creatively engaged with Homer rather than just imitating him.
For Literary Theory: The idea of genre exhaustion anticipates later discussions of intertextuality (Julia Kristeva) and anxiety of influence (Harold Bloom), where all literature is a response to prior works. Bloom’s theory, in particular, would later argue that strong poets must "misread" their predecessors to escape their influence—something this passage suggests was rarely successful in epic.
For Understanding Epic: The text implies that epic is inherently conservative, tied to heroic, romantic themes. Later epics (e.g., Paradise Lost, The Aeneid) are framed as exceptions that prove the rule—most post-Homeric epic is doomed to be derivative.
Cultural Critique: The distinction between "natural and popular" vs. "artificial and academic" reflects a romanticization of oral tradition common in 19th- and early 20th-century scholarship. It suggests that true art is spontaneous, while later, written forms are less vital.

6. Potential Criticisms of the Passage’s Argument

While the passage is persuasive, it presents a somewhat deterministic view of literary history. Modern scholars might argue:

Homer was not as isolated as suggested: Later epics (e.g., Theogony by Hesiod) show diverse traditions coexisting with Homer.
"Exhaustion" is subjective: What one era sees as derivative, another might see as creative reinterpretation (e.g., Ovid’s Metamorphoses plays with epic conventions).
Oral and written traditions interacted: The shift from oral to written was not a clean break, and later epics (e.g., The Aeneid) deliberately engaged with Homer in complex ways.
Genre can evolve: The passage assumes epic is static, but later works (e.g., Don Quixote, Moby-Dick) redefine epic in non-traditional ways.

7. Conclusion: The Passage’s Core Message

The excerpt argues that Homer’s genius was both a gift and a curse: it gave the world unmatched epic poetry but stifled later innovation by setting an impossible standard. The history of epic is thus a story of rise, peak, and decline, where originality becomes increasingly difficult under the weight of tradition. While the passage reflects early 20th-century scholarly biases, it remains a provocative framework for understanding how canonical works shape—and limit—later literature.

Would you like a deeper dive into any specific aspect, such as the oral-formulaic theory or comparisons with later epic traditions?

Questions

Question 1

The passage’s characterization of post-Homeric epic as "mere echoes of the Homeric voice" primarily serves to:

A. Lament the inevitable commercialization of art under institutional patronage.
B. Illustrate the stifling effect of an unassailable canonical masterpiece on subsequent creativity.
C. Argue for the superiority of oral tradition over fixed literary forms.
D. Suggest that later poets lacked the technical skill to innovate within the epic genre.
E. Imply that Homer’s works were themselves derivative of earlier, lost epics.

Question 2

The claim that "freedom from the domination of the great tradition could only be found by seeking new subjects" is most strongly undercut by which implicit assumption in the passage?

A. That the defining essence of epic is inherently tied to romantic themes, making any departure from them a categorical failure.
B. That pre-Homeric poets were more original than their successors due to their lack of exposure to Homer’s influence.
C. That Vergil and Milton succeeded by rejecting Homeric structure rather than adapting it.
D. That oral poetry is more resistant to stylistic exhaustion than written literature.
E. That the Iliad and Odyssey were themselves products of gradual, collaborative revision rather than singular genius.

Question 3

The passage’s use of the phrase "a kind of magnetic attraction" to describe Homer’s influence on later poets is most analogous to which of the following literary-critical concepts?

A. T.S. Eliot’s "dissociation of sensibility," where later art loses emotional unity.
B. Northrop Frye’s "archetypal criticism," where recurring myths shape all narrative.
C. Cleanth Brooks’ "paradox in poetry," where meaning emerges from tension.
D. Harold Bloom’s "anxiety of influence," where strong precursors overwhelm successors.
E. Mikhail Bakhtin’s "dialogism," where texts engage in polyphonic conversation.

Question 4

Which of the following best describes the passage’s underlying assumption about the relationship between artistic perfection and genre evolution?

A. Perfection in a genre acts as a terminal point, foreclosing meaningful innovation within its established conventions.
B. Genres naturally progress toward perfection, after which they fragment into experimental subgenres.
C. The pursuit of perfection is illusory, as all art is contingent on its historical and cultural context.
D. Perfection is only recognizable in retrospect, once a genre has fully exhausted its creative potential.
E. Genres achieve perfection when they balance tradition with subversion, as seen in Vergil’s Aeneid.

Question 5

The passage’s assertion that "the earliest period appears to us as a time of slow development" is primarily based on:

A. An inferential reconstruction from later texts, given the absence of direct evidence.
B. Archaeological findings that correlate poetic fragments with material culture.
C. Comparative linguistics tracing the evolution of dactylic hexameter from Proto-Indo-European roots.
D. Oral-formulaic theory, which posits that epic meter emerged from improvisational performance.
E. The testimony of ancient historians like Herodotus, who described pre-Homeric bardic traditions.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: B

Why B is most correct: The phrase "mere echoes" is part of a broader argument that Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey were so overwhelmingly dominant—described as possessing "supreme perfection and universality"—that they paralyzed later poets, forcing them into imitation. The passage explicitly states that successors were "drawn as by a kind of magnetic attraction into the Homeric style," resulting in derivative work. This aligns with B’s claim that the passage illustrates the stifling effect of an unassailable canonical masterpiece.