Article #390-2 | Gutenberg Articles

Excerpt

Excerpt from A Lute of Jade : Selections from the Classical Poets of China, by L. Cranmer-Byng

It is necessary to mention in passing the celebrated Chu Yuan (fourth cent. B.C.), minister and kinsman of a petty kinglet under the Chou dynasty, whose Li Sao', literally translated `Falling into Trouble',
is partly autobiography and partly imagination. His death by drowning
gave rise to the great Dragon-boat Festival, which was originally
a solemn annual search for the body of the poet.

Soon a great national dynasty arrives whose Emperors are often
patrons of literature and occasionally poets as well. The House of Han
(200 B.C.-A.D. 200) has left its mark upon the Empire of China,
whose people of to-day still call themselves "Sons of Han".
There were Emperors beloved of literary men, Emperors beloved of the people,
builders of long waterways and glittering palaces, and one great conqueror,
the Emperor Wu Ti, of almost legendary fame. This was an age of preparation
and development of new forces. Under the Hans, Buddhism first began
to flourish. The effect is seen in the poetry of the time,
especially towards the closing years of this dynasty. The minds of poets
sought refuge in the ideal world from the illusions of the senses.

The third century A.D. saw the birth of what was probably
the first literary club ever known, the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove.
This little coterie of friends was composed of seven famous men,
who possessed many talents in common, being poets and musicians,
alchemists, philosophers, and mostly hard drinkers as well.
Their poetry, however, is scarcely memorable. Only one great name
stands between them and the poets of the Tang dynasty -- the name of Tao Chien (A.D. 365-427), whose exquisite allegory "The Peach Blossom Fountain" is quoted by Professor Giles in his Chinese Literature'. The philosophy of this ancient poet
appears to have been that of Horace. `Carpe diem!'

Explanation

This excerpt from A Lute of Jade: Selections from the Classical Poets of China (1909), edited and translated by L. Cranmer-Byng, serves as an introductory overview of key literary and cultural developments in early Chinese poetry, spanning from the Warring States period (4th century BCE) to the early medieval era (3rd–5th century CE). Below is a detailed breakdown of the passage, focusing on its content, themes, literary context, and significance, with an emphasis on the text itself.

1. Context and Purpose of the Excerpt

Cranmer-Byng’s A Lute of Jade is an anthology of classical Chinese poetry aimed at introducing Western readers to China’s literary heritage. This particular passage functions as a historical prelude, situating the poets and movements that follow in the book within their broader cultural and political contexts. It highlights:

The transition from early poetic traditions (e.g., Qu Yuan) to the imperial patronage of literature under the Han dynasty.
The emergence of new philosophical and religious influences (Buddhism, Daoist retreat).
The social and intellectual milieu of later poets, including the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove and Tao Qian (T’ao Ch’ien).

The tone is didactic yet lyrical, blending historical exposition with a romanticized view of China’s poetic past.

2. Key Sections and Their Themes

A. Qu Yuan (Ch’ü Yuan) and the Li Sao

"It is necessary to mention in passing the celebrated Chu Yuan (fourth cent. B.C.), minister and kinsman of a petty kinglet under the Chou dynasty, whose Li Sao', literally translated `Falling into Trouble', is partly autobiography and partly imagination. His death by drowning gave rise to the great Dragon-boat Festival, which was originally a solemn annual search for the body of the poet."

Historical Context: Qu Yuan (c. 340–278 BCE) was a loyal minister of the state of Chu, exiled for opposing political corruption. His suicide by drowning in the Miluo River became a symbol of patriotic martyrdom and inspired the Dragon Boat Festival (Duanwu), where boats race to "recover" his body (a ritual blending mourning and folk tradition).
Literary Significance of the Li Sao: The Li Sao ("Encountering Sorrow") is a lyrical epic—China’s first major autobiographical poem—combining myth, political allegory, and personal lament. Its themes include:
- Loyalty vs. Betrayal: Qu Yuan’s grief over his king’s rejection.
- Cosmic Exile: His identification with fallen gods and nature (e.g., "I plucked orchids in the marsh" as a metaphor for purity).
- Imagination as Escape: The poem’s dreamlike sequences (e.g., a celestial journey) reflect his desire for transcendence.
Literary Devices:
- Symbolism: Flowers (orchids = virtue), dragons (imperial power), and rivers (fate).
- Parallelism: Repetitive structures to emphasize emotional intensity.
- Mythological Allusion: References to Shamanistic traditions and ancient deities.
Cultural Legacy: Qu Yuan is often called China’s "first poet" and a proto-Romantic figure—his work blends personal emotion with national identity, a theme later poets (e.g., Li Bai) would emulate.

B. The Han Dynasty (200 BCE–220 CE): Imperial Patronage and Buddhist Influence

"Soon a great national dynasty arrives whose Emperors are often patrons of literature and occasionally poets as well. The House of Han [...] left its mark upon the Empire of China, whose people of to-day still call themselves 'Sons of Han' [...] This was an age of preparation and development of new forces. Under the Hans, Buddhism first began to flourish. The effect is seen in the poetry of the time, especially towards the closing years of this dynasty. The minds of poets sought refuge in the ideal world from the illusions of the senses."

Political and Cultural Background: The Han dynasty unified China after the Qinh dynasty’s collapse, fostering bureaucratic stability and cultural flourishing. Emperors like Wu Di (武帝) were both conquerors (expanding the Silk Road) and patrons of the arts.
Literary Developments:
- Fu (賦) Poetry: Elaborate, rhetorical compositions praising imperial power (e.g., Sima Xiangru’s Fu on the Imperial Park).
- Yuefu (樂府) Ballads: Folk songs collected by the Music Bureau, reflecting common life (e.g., "The Ballad of Mulan").
- Buddhist Influence: By the late Han, Buddhism’s introduction (via the Silk Road) led to poetic themes of impermanence and detachment. Poets like Cao Zhi (曹植) wrote verses on transience (e.g., "The Goddess of the Luo River").
Themes:
- Imperial Grandeur vs. Decay: Early Han poetry celebrates prosperity; later works (e.g., "Nineteen Old Poems") lament moral decline.
- Escape from Reality: The "ideal world" refers to Daoist reclusion and Buddhist nihilism, responses to political chaos.
Literary Devices:
- Hyperbole: In fu poetry, exaggerated praise of palaces/gardens.
- Allegory: Nature as a mirror for human fate (e.g., wilting flowers = fleeting life).

C. The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove (3rd Century CE)

"The third century A.D. saw the birth of what was probably the first literary club ever known, the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. This little coterie of friends was composed of seven famous men, who possessed many talents in common, being poets and musicians, alchemists, philosophers, and mostly hard drinkers as well. Their poetry, however, is scarcely memorable."

Historical Context: The Wei-Jin period (220–420 CE) was marked by political fragmentation (Three Kingdoms) and intellectual ferment. The Seven Sages (竹林七贤)—including Ruan Ji (阮籍) and Xi Kang (嵇康)—were Daoist-inclined scholars who rejected Confucian orthodoxy in favor of individualism, wine, and mysticism.
Themes and Lifestyle:
- Defiance of Convention: They drank heavily, played the qin (琴), and wrote darkly humorous verses.
- Alchemy and Immortality: Some (like Xi Kang) experimented with elixirs, blending science and mysticism.
- Political Disillusionment: Their cynicism reflected the era’s instability (e.g., Ruan Ji’s "Drinking Alone").
Literary Legacy: While Cranmer-Byng dismisses their poetry as "scarcely memorable," their attitude influenced later rebel-poets (e.g., Li Bai’s wine-soaked Daoism). Their essays (e.g., Xi Kang’s "Music Has No Sorrow") are more philosophically significant.

D. Tao Qian (T’ao Ch’ien, 365–427 CE) and Carpe Diem

"Only one great name stands between them and the poets of the Tang dynasty—the name of Tao Ch`ien [...] whose exquisite allegory 'The Peach Blossom Fountain' is quoted by Professor Giles in his Chinese Literature. The philosophy of this ancient poet appears to have been that of Horace. ‘Carpe diem!’"

Tao Qian’s Significance: Tao Qian (陶渊明) is China’s first great "recluse poet"—a Confucian official turned farmer who rejected worldly ambition for rural simplicity. His work bridges Han classicism and Tang romanticism.
Themes in His Poetry:
- Pastoral Ideal: Celebration of farming, wine, and nature (e.g., "Drinking Wine" poems).
- Daoist Detachment: Emphasis on harmony with nature and contentment (e.g., "Returning to the Garden-Farm").
- Allegory: "The Peach Blossom Fountain" (《桃花源記》) describes a utopian village hidden from war, symbolizing escape from corruption.
Literary Devices:
- Plain Language: Unlike ornate fu, Tao’s style is direct and unadorned.
- Symbolism: The peach blossom = purity; the hidden valley = spiritual refuge.
Philosophical Parallels: Cranmer-Byng compares Tao to Horace (Roman poet of carpe diem), but Tao’s philosophy is more Daoist:
- Not "seize the day" in hedonism, but "cherish the present in simplicity."
- Rejection of fame: "I plow in the morning, read at night—what more could I ask?"

3. Literary Devices in the Excerpt Itself

Cranmer-Byng’s prose uses several techniques to engage and inform:

Historical Sweep: The passage compresses centuries into a narrative arc, moving from Qu Yuan’s tragedy → Han grandeur → Wei-Jin decadence → Tao’s tranquility.
Romanticized Tone:
- "Glittering palaces," "legendary fame," "exquisite allegory"—language that elevates the past.
- The Seven Sages are portrayed as bohemian rebels, appealing to Western stereotypes of "Oriental mysticism."
Contrast:
- Qu Yuan’s drowning (public, political) vs. Tao Qian’s farm (private, philosophical).
- Han imperialism vs. Wei-Jin individualism.
Allusion:
- References to Professor Giles (a sinologist) and Horace anchor Chinese poetry in a familiar Western framework.

4. Significance of the Excerpt

Cultural Bridge: Cranmer-Byng frames Chinese poetry for a Western audience, emphasizing universal themes (exile, nature, rebellion) while exoticizing certain aspects (e.g., "alchemists and hard drinkers").
Literary History: The passage traces the evolution of Chinese poetry from:
- Political lament (Qu Yuan) → Imperial spectacle (Han fu) → Philosophical retreat (Tao Qian). This sets the stage for the Tang dynasty’s golden age (Li Bai, Du Fu), where these traditions converge.
Philosophical Shifts:
- Confucian loyalty (Qu Yuan) → Daoist/Buddhist detachment (Han collapse) → Individualist recluse-ideal (Tao Qian). These shifts reflect China’s cyclical history of engagement and withdrawal.
Misrepresentations and Omissions:
- Cranmer-Byng downplays the political radicalism of the Seven Sages (e.g., Xi Kang was executed for defying authority).
- The Buddhist influence is simplified; in reality, it clashed with Daoism in complex ways.

5. Conclusion: The Excerpt’s Enduring Relevance

This passage remains valuable as:

A gateway to classical Chinese poetry for Western readers.
A snapshot of how early 20th-century scholars interpreted China—partly accurate, partly romanticized.
A reminder that literary traditions are shaped by history: Qu Yuan’s drowning, Han imperialism, and Tao’s farm are all responses to their times.

Tao Qian’s "Carpe diem"—reinterpreted through a Daoist lens—offers a timeless counterpoint to modern materialism, while Qu Yuan’s Li Sao continues to resonate as a cry against injustice. The excerpt, thus, is not just about Chinese poetry but part of its global legacy.

Final Thought: Cranmer-Byng’s prose, like the poetry it describes, blends fact and myth—inviting readers to see China’s past as both foreign and familiar, a mirror for universal human struggles with power, time, and meaning.

Questions

Question 1

The passage’s portrayal of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove serves primarily to:

A. illustrate the tension between individualistic rebellion and the constraints of political orthodoxy in Wei-Jin era China.
B. highlight the decline of poetic craftsmanship in the third century as a prelude to Tao Qian’s revival of lyrical excellence.
C. contrast the hedonistic excesses of the literati with the ascetic discipline of Buddhist-influenced Han poets.
D. demonstrate how collective artistic movements inevitably produce mediocre work despite their cultural influence.
E. underscore the inevitability of historical cycles, where periods of intellectual ferment give way to artistic stagnation.

Question 2

The assertion that Tao Qian’s philosophy "appears to have been that of Horace" is most accurately described as:

A. a literal equivalence, given both poets’ explicit rejection of material ambition in favor of Epicurean pleasure.
B. a superficial analogy that elides the Daoist underpinnings of Tao’s contentment in favor of a more familiar Western framework.
C. an anachronistic misreading, since Tao’s agrarian idealism predates Horace’s urban carpe diem by several centuries.
D. a deliberate exaggeration to elevate Tao’s status among Western readers by aligning him with a canonical Roman poet.
E. an ironic juxtaposition, as Tao’s recluse ethos directly contradicts Horace’s engagement with Roman civic life.

Question 3

The passage’s discussion of the Han dynasty’s literary output implies that the "ideal world" poets sought was primarily a response to:

A. the aesthetic limitations of fu poetry, which constrained emotional expression through its rigid formalism.
B. the emperor’s demand for propagandistic verse, forcing poets to encode dissent in allegorical landscapes.
C. the rise of Buddhist metaphysics, which provided a conceptual vocabulary for articulating transcendence.
D. the cognitive dissonance between imperial grandeur and the underlying fragility of dynastic power.
E. the influx of foreign merchant cultures via the Silk Road, which introduced exotic themes into native traditions.

Question 4

Which of the following best characterizes the passage’s treatment of Qu Yuan’s Li Sao?

A. As a proto-Romantic manifesto, emphasizing subjective emotion over classical restraint.
B. As a foundational text that synthesizes personal lament and political allegory, setting a template for later poetic traditions.
C. As an anomalous work whose mythological allusions alienated it from the Confucian literary mainstream.
D. As a historical curiosity, notable more for its cultural legacy (the Dragon-boat Festival) than its literary merit.
E. As a cautionary tale about the dangers of artistic idealism in an era of political pragmatism.

Question 5

The structural progression of the passage—from Qu Yuan to the Han dynasty to the Seven Sages to Tao Qian—is most analogous to:

A. a genealogical chart, tracing the lineal descent of poetic forms from a single progenitor.
B. a geological cross-section, revealing distinct strata of cultural sedimentation.
C. a musical crescendo, building from solitary lament to collective celebration.
D. a legal brief, marshaling historical evidence to argue for poetry’s centrality in Chinese identity.
E. a river’s course, moving from turbulent rapids to a tranquil delta, with occasional whirlpools of disruption.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: A

Why A is most correct: The passage frames the Seven Sages as a coterie of "poets and musicians, alchemists, philosophers, and mostly hard drinkers" who explicitly rejected Confucian norms (e.g., Xi Kang’s defiance of authority). Their "scarcely memorable" poetry is less significant than their symbolic rebellion against the political orthodoxy of the Wei-Jin period, a tension the passage highlights by juxtaposing their individualistic hedonism with the collectivist expectations of imperial China. This aligns with the broader theme of literary responses to political constraint (e.g., Qu Yuan’s exile, Tao’s retreat).