Article #70-2 | Gutenberg Articles

Excerpt

Excerpt from What Is Man? and Other Essays, by Mark Twain

O.M. He did nothing of the kind. It came whence all impulses, good or
bad, come—from outside. If that timid man had lived all his life in a
community of human rabbits, had never read of brave deeds, had never
heard speak of them, had never heard any one praise them nor express
envy of the heroes that had done them, he would have had no more idea
of bravery than Adam had of modesty, and it could never by any
possibility have occurred to him to resolve to become brave. He
could not originate the idea—it had to come to him from the
outside. And so, when he heard bravery extolled and cowardice
derided, it woke him up. He was ashamed. Perhaps his sweetheart turned
up her nose and said, “I am told that you are a coward!” It was not
he that turned over the new leaf—she did it for him. He must not
strut around in the merit of it —it is not his.

Y.M. But, anyway, he reared the plant after she watered the seed.

O.M. No. Outside influences reared it. At the command—and
trembling—he marched out into the field—with other soldiers and in the
daytime, not alone and in the dark. He had the influence of example,
he drew courage from his comrades’ courage; he was afraid, and wanted
to run, but he did not dare; he was afraid to run, with all those
soldiers looking on. He was progressing, you see—the moral fear of
shame had risen superior to the physical fear of harm. By the end of
the campaign experience will have taught him that not all who go into
battle get hurt—an outside influence which will be helpful to him; and
he will also have learned how sweet it is to be praised for courage and
be huzza’d at with tear-choked voices as the war-worn regiment marches
past the worshiping multitude with flags flying and the drums beating.
After that he will be as securely brave as any veteran in the army—and
there will not be a shade nor suggestion of personal merit in it
anywhere; it will all have come from the outside. The Victoria Cross
breeds more heroes than—

Explanation

Mark Twain’s What Is Man? (1906) is a philosophical dialogue between an Old Man (O.M.), who espouses a deterministic view of human nature, and a Young Man (Y.M.), who occasionally challenges him with idealistic or moralistic counterarguments. The excerpt you’ve provided is a prime example of Twain’s deterministic and environmentalist perspective—the idea that human behavior, including virtues like bravery, is not innate but shaped entirely by external forces. Below is a detailed breakdown of the passage, focusing on its arguments, themes, literary devices, and significance, with an emphasis on the text itself.

1. Context of the Excerpt

The essay is part of Twain’s later, more cynical works, where he grapples with free will, morality, and human nature. Written in dialogue form (reminiscent of Plato’s Socratic dialogues), it reflects Twain’s disillusionment with human agency, likely influenced by:

His personal tragedies (deaths of loved ones, financial struggles).
His skepticism of religion and idealism (seen in works like The Mysterious Stranger).
His observations of war and heroism (e.g., the Civil War, imperialism).

The Old Man’s arguments align with psychological determinism—the belief that all actions are products of external conditioning, not internal choice.

2. Summary of the Excerpt’s Argument

The Old Man dismantles the idea of personal merit in bravery, arguing that:

Bravery is not innate—it is learned from external sources (society, praise, shame).
The "timid man" (a hypothetical coward) only becomes brave because:
- He is exposed to stories of heroism (books, societal praise).
- He is shamed (e.g., by a sweetheart calling him a coward).
- He is pressured by social expectations (fear of ridicule, desire for approval).
- He gains confidence through experience (seeing others survive battle).
Even his "progress" is illusory—his courage is a product of moral fear (shame) outweighing physical fear (death), not genuine virtue.
The Victoria Cross (a British military honor) "breeds more heroes"—suggesting that rewards and recognition, not inner strength, drive heroic acts.

The Young Man’s weak rebuttal—"he reared the plant after she watered the seed"—is swiftly dismissed: the Old Man insists even the "rearing" is done by outside forces.

3. Key Themes

A. Determinism vs. Free Will

The Old Man rejects the notion of personal agency. Bravery is not a choice but a conditioned response.
Example: The soldier doesn’t choose courage; he is forced by shame, peer pressure, and the promise of glory.
Implication: If all impulses come from "outside," then morality is a social construct, not an individual achievement.

B. The Illusion of Heroism

Twain demystifies heroism, reducing it to social reinforcement.
The soldier’s bravery is performative—he acts because others are watching ("afraid to run, with all those soldiers looking on").
Irony: The "hero" is praised for something he didn’t truly earn; his merit is a collective delusion.

C. The Power of Shame and Reward

Shame (e.g., the sweetheart’s scorn) and reward (e.g., praise, the Victoria Cross) are the real motivators.
Psychological insight: Twain anticipates behavioral psychology (e.g., B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning), where actions are shaped by punishments and rewards.

D. The Absurdity of Moral Pride

The Old Man mocks the idea of taking credit for bravery:
"He must not strut around in the merit of it—it is not his."
Satirical edge: Twain critiques self-righteousness, suggesting that even our noblest acts are borrowed from society.

4. Literary Devices

A. Dialogue as a Rhetorical Tool

The Socratic method (question-and-answer) makes the Old Man’s arguments feel inescapable.
The Young Man’s weak interjections ("But, anyway...") highlight the one-sidedness of the debate, reinforcing Twain’s deterministic view.

B. Hyperbole and Absolutism

"All impulses, good or bad, come—from outside."
- The sweeping generalization underscores Twain’s deterministic stance.
"Not a shade nor suggestion of personal merit."
- Emphatic denial of free will, leaving no room for individualism.

C. Irony and Sarcasm

The Victoria Cross (a symbol of honor) is reduced to a tool for manufacturing heroes.
The soldier’s "progress" is framed as pathetically dependent on others ("trembling," "afraid to run").

D. Biblical Allusion

"Adam had of modesty"
- References the Garden of Eden, where Adam and Eve only gain shame (modesty) after external influence (eating the fruit).
- Reinforces the idea that even fundamental human traits are learned, not innate.

E. Repetition for Emphasis

"Outside" is repeated six times in the excerpt, hammering home the environmentalist thesis.
"He could not originate the idea"—stresses the passivity of the individual.

5. Significance of the Passage

A. Philosophical Implications

Twain challenges Enlightenment ideals of individualism and rational choice.
His view aligns with hard determinism (like Thomas Hobbes or later behaviorists), where human nature is malleable and mechanistic.

War and heroism are socially constructed:
- Soldiers are not inherently brave; they are conditioned by propaganda, peer pressure, and rewards.
- Implication: Wars are fought by manipulated men, not free agents.
Morality is a performance:
- People act "good" to avoid shame or gain praise, not out of intrinsic virtue.

C. Psychological Foreshadowing

Twain anticipates modern psychology:
- Behaviorism (Skinner): Actions are shaped by external stimuli.
- Social Learning Theory (Bandura): People imitate observed behaviors.
His cynicism about free will prefigures neuroscientific determinism (e.g., Sam Harris’s Free Will).

D. Twain’s Personal Cynicism

The passage reflects Twain’s late-life disillusionment:
- After financial ruin and family tragedies, he saw human nature as weak and dependent.
- His earlier optimism (e.g., Huckleberry Finn) gives way to pessimism about human autonomy.

6. Counterarguments and Limitations

While the Old Man’s argument is persuasive in its logic, it has weaknesses:

Overly reductive: It ignores innate temperament (some people are naturally more risk-averse or bold).
Neglects internal conflict: Even if influenced by outside forces, individuals interpret and resist those influences.
Determinism’s paradox: If all actions are predetermined, why argue at all? (A problem Twain doesn’t fully address.)

The Young Man’s feeble pushback ("he reared the plant") suggests Twain wanted the Old Man’s view to dominate, but the extremism of the claim invites reader skepticism.

7. Conclusion: Why This Passage Matters

This excerpt is a masterclass in deterministic argumentation, using sharp dialogue, repetition, and irony to dismantle the myth of personal heroism. Twain’s Old Man presents a bleak but compelling vision of human nature as entirely shaped by environment, stripping away the romance of individualism.

Key Takeaways:

Bravery is a social construct, not an innate virtue.
Shame and reward, not moral conviction, drive action.
Free will is an illusion—we are products of our surroundings.
Twain’s cynicism reflects his era’s disillusionment with war, religion, and human nature.

The passage remains relevant today in debates about:

Nature vs. nurture (e.g., are soldiers "born" brave or "made" brave?).
The ethics of war (are soldiers truly "heroes" or victims of conditioning?).
Social media and performative morality (do people act virtuously for likes, not conviction?).

Twain’s unflinching determinism forces readers to question: If we are merely products of outside forces, what does that mean for morality, responsibility, and the very idea of the self?

Questions

Question 1

The Old Man’s assertion that “it will all have come from the outside” functions primarily as:

A. a rhetorical flourish to emphasize the soldier’s lack of agency, though the argument concedes that internal reflection plays a minor role in moral development.
B. an empirical claim about the neurological origins of courage, grounded in then-contemporary scientific studies of behavioral conditioning.
C. a satirical exaggeration meant to provoke the Young Man into defending the existence of innate moral virtues.
D. the culmination of a deterministic argument that systematically eliminates any role for individual volition in the formation of character.
E. an ironic undermining of his own position, since the Old Man’s insistence on external influences itself constitutes an “inside” act of persuasion.

Question 2

The Young Man’s interjection—“But, anyway, he reared the plant after she watered the seed”—is most effectively interpreted as:

A. a literal agricultural metaphor that inadvertently strengthens the Old Man’s argument by framing growth as passive.
B. an attempt to salvage some notion of personal effort, though the Old Man’s response exposes its reliance on external scaffolding.
C. a concession that the soldier’s bravery is entirely derivative, but that derivative acts still retain moral value.
D. a non sequitur that reveals the Young Man’s inability to engage with the deterministic framework on its own terms.
E. a subtle critique of the Old Man’s reductionism, implying that nurturing an external impulse still requires internal participation.

Question 3

The Old Man’s repeated use of the phrase “outside influences” serves all of the following functions EXCEPT:

A. to create a rhythmic, almost incantatory effect that reinforces the inevitability of his deterministic worldview.
B. to preemptively dismiss counterarguments by framing agency as an illusion before they can be articulated.
C. to establish a binary opposition between “inside” and “outside” that collapses under scrutiny, revealing the argument’s internal contradictions.
D. to mirror the mechanical, impersonal forces he describes, stripping the soldier’s transformation of any poetic or individualistic dimension.
E. to invoke a scientific lexicon that lends his claims an air of objectivity, despite the dialogue’s lack of empirical evidence.

Question 4

Which of the following best describes the relationship between the Old Man’s argument and the concept of the Victoria Cross?

A. The Victoria Cross is presented as a rare exception to the rule of external influences, proving that some individuals transcend conditioning.
B. It functions as a synecdoche for institutional reinforcement, illustrating how societal rewards perpetuate the illusion of innate heroism.
C. The reference to the Victoria Cross undermines the Old Man’s determinism by introducing an element of meritocratic recognition.
D. The Old Man uses it to contrast British and American cultural attitudes toward bravery, implying the former is more susceptible to external manipulation.
E. It serves as a red herring, distracting from the weaker aspects of the deterministic argument by appealing to patriotic sentiment.

Question 5

The passage’s treatment of shame—particularly in the sweetheart’s rebuke—is most analogous to which of the following philosophical concepts?

A. Kant’s categorical imperative, as it imposes a universal moral duty on the soldier to overcome cowardice.
B. Nietzsche’s slave morality, wherein the soldier internalizes the values of the “herd” to avoid social ostracization.
C. Aristotle’s golden mean, where the soldier’s fear of shame balances his fear of harm to achieve virtuous courage.
D. Foucault’s disciplinary power, where the soldier’s behavior is regulated through surveillance and the threat of reputational damage.
E. Sartre’s radical freedom, as the soldier’s shame forces him to confront the absurdity of his own choices.

Solutions and Explanations

1) Correct answer: D

Why D is most correct: The Old Man’s argument is structurally deterministic, methodically eliminating any role for individual volition. The phrase “it will all have come from the outside” is the logical endpoint of his claims: (1) the soldier’s initial impulse is externally sourced, (2) his actions are governed by shame and example, and (3) even his “progress” is a product of experience (another external force). The repetition of “outside” isn’t merely emphasis—it’s the conclusion of a syllogism that leaves no room for internal agency. This aligns with hard determinism, where free will is an illusion.