Excerpt

Excerpt from History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 2, by Edward Gibbon

  121 (return) [ As in a former period I have traced the civil and<br />
  military promotion of Pertinax, I shall here insert the civil<br />
  honors of Mallius Theodorus. 1. He was distinguished by his<br />
  eloquence, while he pleaded as an advocate in the court of the<br />
  Prætorian præfect. 2. He governed one of the provinces of Africa,<br />
  either as president or consular, and deserved, by his<br />
  administration, the honor of a brass statue. 3. He was appointed<br />
  vicar, or vice-præfect, of Macedonia. 4. Quæstor. 5. Count of the<br />
  sacred largesses. 6. Prætorian præfect of the Gauls; whilst he<br />
  might yet be represented as a young man. 7. After a retreat,<br />
  perhaps a disgrace of many years, which Mallius (confounded by<br />
  some critics with the poet Manilius; see Fabricius Bibliothec.<br />
  Latin. Edit. Ernest. tom. i.c. 18, p. 501) employed in the study<br />
  of the Grecian philosophy he was named Prætorian præfect of<br />
  Italy, in the year 397. 8. While he still exercised that great<br />
  office, he was created, it the year 399, consul for the West; and<br />
  his name, on account of the infamy of his colleague, the eunuch<br />
  Eutropius, often stands alone in the Fasti. 9. In the year 408,<br />
  Mallius was appointed a second time Prætorian præfect of Italy.<br />
  Even in the venal panegyric of Claudian, we may discover the<br />
  merit of Mallius Theodorus, who, by a rare felicity, was the<br />
  intimate friend, both of Symmachus and of St. Augustin. See<br />
  Tillemont, Hist. des Emp. tom. v. p. 1110-1114.]

  122 (return) [ Mamertinus in Panegyr. Vet. xi. [x.] 20. Asterius<br />
  apud Photium, p. 1500.]

  123 (return) [ The curious passage of Ammianus, (l. xxx. c. 4,)<br />
  in which he paints the manners of contemporary lawyers, affords a<br />
  strange mixture of sound sense, false rhetoric, and extravagant<br />
  satire. Godefroy (Prolegom. ad. Cod. Theod. c. i. p. 185)<br />
  supports the historian by similar complaints and authentic facts.<br />
  In the fourth century, many camels might have been laden with<br />
  law-books. Eunapius in Vit. Ædesii, p. 72.]

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Explanation

Edward Gibbon’s The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) is a monumental work of historiography that traces the political, cultural, and social collapse of Rome from the height of its power to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The excerpt provided is a footnote (or "return") from Volume 2, which focuses on the later Roman Empire (roughly the 3rd–5th centuries AD). Gibbon’s style blends meticulous scholarship with ironic detachment, often using footnotes to expand on biographical details, critique sources, or underscore broader themes. This particular passage exemplifies his method: it offers a curriculum vitae of Mallius Theodorus, a high-ranking Roman official, while embedding historical context, literary allusions, and subtle judgments about the era’s corruption and intellectual life.

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Breakdown of the Excerpt

The passage is a biographical footnote (marked as "121 (return)") that outlines the career of Mallius Theodorus, a late 4th-century Roman administrator. Gibbon structures it as a chronological list of offices, interspersed with commentary on Theodorus’s character, the political climate, and the reliability of sources. Here’s a close reading:

1. The Career of Mallius Theodorus: A Roman Cursus Honorum

Gibbon presents Theodorus’s rise through the imperial bureaucracy as a microcosm of late Roman governance, where merit, patronage, and luck intertwined. The offices listed reflect the hierarchy of the later Empire, where civilian and military roles were increasingly specialized:

• Advocate in the Praetorian Prefect’s court: Theodorus begins as a lawyer, a common entry point for ambitious men. Gibbon notes his eloquence, a virtue prized in Roman culture (echoing Cicero’s ideal of the orator-perfectus).
• Governor of an African province: Provincial administration was a proving ground. The "brass statue" suggests he was honored for competence or fairness—a rarity Gibbon implies was worth noting.
• Vicar of Macedonia: A mid-tier administrative role, showing his progression.
• Quæstor and Count of the Sacred Largesses: Financial and legal offices tied to the imperial treasury, indicating trust.
• Praetorian Prefect of the Gauls (as a "young man"): The Praetorian Prefecture was the Empire’s highest civilian post, akin to a prime minister. Theodorus’s youthful appointment hints at patronage or exceptional talent.
• Retreat and Study of Greek Philosophy: Gibbon notes a gap in Theodorus’s career, possibly due to disgrace (a common fate in the volatile politics of the time). His turn to Greek philosophy aligns with the late antique revival of Platonism (e.g., the circles of Symmachus and St. Augustine, both mentioned later). This detail humanizes Theodorus and contrasts with the pragmatic brutality of imperial service.
• Praetorian Prefect of Italy (397 AD): A second prefectorial appointment, now in Italy, the Empire’s heart. Gibbon’s phrasing ("perhaps a disgrace") suggests skepticism about the official narrative.
• Consul (399 AD): The consulship was a prestigious but largely ceremonial role by this era. Gibbon dryly notes that Theodorus’s name "stands alone" in the Fasti (consular records) because his colleague, the eunuch Eutropius, was so infamous. This is a veiled critique of the Empire’s decay: eunuchs (often slaves) holding power symbolized the erosion of traditional Roman virtue.
• Second Term as Praetorian Prefect (408 AD): Rare for the late Empire, this suggests Theodorus was exceptionally trusted—or that the Empire was desperate for competent administrators.

2. Literary and Historical Context

• Sources and Reliability: Gibbon cites Claudian’s panegyric (a laudatory poem) as evidence of Theodorus’s merit, but calls it "venal" (i.e., bought and flattering). This reflects Gibbon’s skepticism toward propaganda and his habit of reading between the lines. He also references Tillemont, a 17th-century church historian, showing his intertextual method—cross-referencing ancient and modern sources.

  • The confusion with the poet Manilius is a dig at scholarly errors, a recurring theme in Gibbon’s footnotes (he often corrects or mocks earlier historians).

• Intellectual Circles: Theodorus’s friendship with Symmachus (a pagan senator and orator) and St. Augustine (the Christian theologian) places him at the crossroads of late antique culture. Symmachus represented the old Roman aristocracy, while Augustine embodied the rise of Christianity. Gibbon, an Enlightenment skeptic, likely sees Theodorus as a bridge between worlds—or a hypocrite navigating both.

• Themes:

  • Merit vs. Corruption: Theodorus’s career suggests real ability, but Gibbon’s asides (e.g., "venal panegyric," "infamy of Eutropius") imply the system was rotten. The Empire still produced competent men, but they operated in a decadent framework.
  • Decline of Roman Virtue: The eunuch consul and the philosophical retreat symbolize the fracturing of Roman identity. Traditional virtus (manly excellence) is replaced by bureaucratic survival and intellectual escapism.
  • Legal and Administrative Bloat: The reference to Ammianus Marcellinus’s satire on lawyers (footnote 123) reinforces the theme of overlegalism—a system so complex it required "camels laden with law-books." Gibbon links this to the Empire’s sclerosis.

3. Literary Devices

• Irony and Understatement:

  • "his name stands alone" (because his colleague was a disgraced eunuch) is dry humor, implying the consulship’s degradation.
  • "a rare felicity" (that Theodorus was friends with both Symmachus and Augustine) is sarcastic: in Gibbon’s view, such "felicity" was rare because the Empire was polarized between pagans and Christians.

• Juxtaposition:

  • Theodorus’s practical career vs. his philosophical retreat highlights the tension between action and contemplation in late antiquity.
  • The honor of a brass statue (early career) vs. the infamy of Eutropius (later context) contrasts ideal and reality.

• Allusion:

  • The camels laden with law-books (from Ammianus) is a hyperbolic image of legal excess, evoking the bureaucratic nightmare of the later Empire.
  • The friendship with Augustine subtly nods to the Christianization of Rome, a major theme in Gibbon’s narrative.

4. Significance

• Biography as History: Gibbon uses Theodorus’s life to illustrate broader trends: the professionalization of the imperial bureaucracy, the rise of eunuchs, and the intellectual responses to decline. This is classic prosopography—studying individuals to understand systems.

• Gibbon’s Historiographical Method: The footnote showcases his skeptical, source-critical approach. He weights evidence (e.g., dismissing Claudian’s panegyric as "venal" but still extracting useful data) and contextualizes (e.g., linking Theodorus’s philosophy to the era’s spiritual crises).

• Enlightenment Themes: Gibbon, writing in the 18th century, sees the decline of Rome as a cautionary tale for his own era. Theodorus’s career—brilliant but compromised—mirrors Gibbon’s view of human achievement within corrupt systems. The rise of Christianity (via Augustine) is both a cultural shift and, in Gibbon’s eyes, a factor in Rome’s fall (a controversial claim in his time).

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Conclusion: Why This Matters

This seemingly dry footnote is a masterclass in historical compression. Gibbon packs into it:

1. A case study of late Roman governance (how careers were made and unmade).
2. A critique of sources (panegyrics, statues, fasti—all potentially misleading).
3. A narrative of cultural transition (paganism to Christianity, philosophy to bureaucracy).
4. A subtle argument about decline (competent men like Theodorus couldn’t stem the tide).

For Gibbon, Mallius Theodorus is both exceptional and typical—a man who navigated the Empire’s contradictions but whose story ultimately confirms its decay. The footnote’s power lies in its apparent objectivity: Gibbon lets the facts speak, but the selection and phrasing guide the reader to his bleak conclusion. This is history as literature, where the footnotes carry as much weight as the main text.