Appearance
Excerpt
Excerpt from History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 3, by Edward Gibbon
11 (return) [ Camden (vol. i. introduct. p. ci.) appoints him<br />
governor at Britain; and the father of our antiquities is<br />
followed, as usual, by his blind progeny. Pacatus and Zosimus had<br />
taken some pains to prevent this error, or fable; and I shall<br />
protect myself by their decisive testimonies. Regali habitu<br />
exulem suum, illi exules orbis induerunt, (in Panegyr. Vet. xii.<br />
23,) and the Greek historian still less equivocally, (Maximus)<br />
(l. iv. p. 248.)]
12 (return) [ Sulpicius Severus, Dialog. ii. 7. Orosius, l. vii.<br />
c. 34. p. 556. They both acknowledge (Sulpicius had been his<br />
subject) his innocence and merit. It is singular enough, that<br />
Maximus should be less favorably treated by Zosimus, the partial<br />
adversary of his rival.]
But there was danger likewise in refusing the empire; and from<br />
the moment that Maximus had violated his allegiance to his lawful<br />
sovereign, he could not hope to reign, or even to live, if he<br />
confined his moderate ambition within the narrow limits of<br />
Britain. He boldly and wisely resolved to prevent the designs of<br />
Gratian; the youth of the island crowded to his standard, and he<br />
invaded Gaul with a fleet and army, which were long afterwards<br />
remembered, as the emigration of a considerable part of the<br />
British nation. 13 The emperor, in his peaceful residence of<br />
Paris, was alarmed by their hostile approach; and the darts which<br />
he idly wasted on lions and bears, might have been employed more<br />
honorably against the rebels. But his feeble efforts announced<br />
his degenerate spirit and desperate situation; and deprived him<br />
of the resources, which he still might have found, in the support<br />
of his subjects and allies. The armies of Gaul, instead of<br />
opposing the march of Maximus, received him with joyful and loyal<br />
acclamations; and the shame of the desertion was transferred from<br />
the people to the prince. The troops, whose station more<br />
immediately attached them to the service of the palace, abandoned<br />
the standard of Gratian the first time that it was displayed in<br />
the neighborhood of Paris. The emperor of the West fled towards<br />
Lyons, with a train of only three hundred horse; and, in the<br />
cities along the road, where he hoped to find refuge, or at least<br />
a passage, he was taught, by cruel experience, that every gate is<br />
shut against the unfortunate. Yet he might still have reached, in<br />
safety, the dominions of his brother; and soon have returned with<br />
the forces of Italy and the East; if he had not suffered himself<br />
to be fatally deceived by the perfidious governor of the Lyonnese<br />
province. Gratian was amused by protestations of doubtful<br />
fidelity, and the hopes of a support, which could not be<br />
effectual; till the arrival of Andragathius, the general of the<br />
cavalry of Maximus, put an end to his suspense. That resolute<br />
officer executed, without remorse, the orders or the intention of<br />
the usurper. Gratian, as he rose from supper, was delivered into<br />
the hands of the assassin: and his body was denied to the pious<br />
and pressing entreaties of his brother Valentinian. 14 The death<br />
of the emperor was followed by that of his powerful general<br />
Mellobaudes, the king of the Franks; who maintained, to the last<br />
moment of his life, the ambiguous reputation, which is the just<br />
recompense of obscure and subtle policy. 15 These executions<br />
might be necessary to the public safety: but the successful<br />
usurper, whose power was acknowledged by all the provinces of the<br />
West, had the merit, and the satisfaction, of boasting, that,<br />
except those who had perished by the chance of war, his triumph<br />
was not stained by the blood of the Romans. 16
Explanation
Detailed Explanation of the Excerpt from The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volume 3) by Edward Gibbon
This passage recounts the usurpation of the Western Roman Empire by Magnus Maximus (referred to here as "Maximus") and the subsequent downfall and death of the emperor Gratian in 383 AD. Gibbon, writing in the 18th century, blends historical narrative with sharp political and moral commentary, characteristic of his Enlightenment-era approach to history.
Context of the Excerpt
Historical Background:
- Gratian (r. 367–383 AD) was the Western Roman Emperor, ruling alongside his half-brother Valentinian II (who controlled Italy and parts of the Balkans).
- Magnus Maximus, a Spanish-born general stationed in Britain, was proclaimed emperor by his troops, leading to a civil war.
- Gratian, young and increasingly unpopular (partly due to his reliance on Alan mercenaries and neglect of the army), was unable to resist Maximus’ invasion.
Gibbon’s Sources & Method:
- Gibbon cites Pacatus (a Gallic orator), Zosimus (a 6th-century Greek historian), Sulpicius Severus (a Christian chronicler), and Orosius (a 5th-century Christian historian) to support his account.
- He critiques earlier historians (like Camden, a 16th-century English antiquarian) for inaccuracies, demonstrating his meticulous use of primary sources.
- The footnotes (marked by numbers) reveal Gibbon’s engagement with conflicting historical accounts, reinforcing his reputation as a scrupulous historian.
Themes in the Excerpt
The Fragility of Imperial Authority:
- Gratian’s failure is framed as a result of weak leadership—he wastes his energy hunting ("darts which he idly wasted on lions and bears") rather than governing or defending his throne.
- His desertion by the army ("the troops... abandoned the standard of Gratian") symbolizes the erosion of loyalty in the late Roman Empire, where military support determined legitimacy more than hereditary or legal claims.
Usurpation and Legitimacy:
- Maximus’ rebellion is presented as both bold and pragmatic—he recognizes that remaining in Britain would be suicidal ("he could not hope to reign, or even to live, if he confined his moderate ambition within the narrow limits of Britain").
- Gibbon notes that Maximus’ success was due to popular and military support ("the armies of Gaul... received him with joyful and loyal acclamations"), suggesting that effective rule, not legal right, determined power.
Betrayal and Political Realism:
- Gratian’s naïveté is contrasted with the cunning of his enemies. He trusts a "perfidious governor" of Lyons, who delays him until Maximus’ general, Andragathius, arrives to kill him.
- The death of Mellobaudes, a Frankish general, underscores the danger of shifting alliances—his "ambiguous reputation" reflects the instability of late Roman politics, where even powerful figures could not survive a change in regime.
Violence and Justification:
- Gibbon acknowledges that Maximus’ executions (of Gratian and Mellobaudes) might have been "necessary to the public safety"—a Machiavellian justification for political violence.
- However, he also notes that Maximus avoided further bloodshed, presenting himself as a restorer rather than a tyrant ("his triumph was not stained by the blood of the Romans"). This reflects the propaganda of usurpers, who often claimed to be saving the empire rather than destroying it.
Decline of the West:
- The passage subtly reinforces Gibbon’s broader thesis: the Western Empire’s weakness is evident in Gratian’s inability to rally support, the disloyalty of provincial governors, and the ease with which a British-based usurper could seize Gaul.
- The "emigration of a considerable part of the British nation" foreshadows later barbarian migrations and the collapse of Roman Britain.
Literary Devices & Style
Irony and Sarcasm:
- Gibbon’s dry wit is evident in phrases like:
- "the darts which he idly wasted on lions and bears, might have been employed more honorably against the rebels" → Gratian’s hunting is a metaphor for his misplaced priorities.
- "every gate is shut against the unfortunate" → A proverbial observation on the fickleness of power.
- His description of the "perfidious governor" is heavily ironic, emphasizing Gratian’s gullibility.
- Gibbon’s dry wit is evident in phrases like:
Contrast & Juxtaposition:
- Gratian’s weakness vs. Maximus’ decisiveness:
- Gratian flees with "only three hundred horse"; Maximus leads a full-scale invasion.
- Gratian is abandoned; Maximus is welcomed.
- Public necessity vs. personal ambition:
- Maximus’ executions are "necessary," but his boast of mercy ("not stained by the blood of the Romans") is self-serving.
- Gratian’s weakness vs. Maximus’ decisiveness:
Classical Allusions & Rhetorical Flourishes:
- Gibbon’s prose mimics Roman historiography (e.g., Tacitus, Livy), using grand, periodic sentences to heighten drama.
- Phrases like "the youth of the island crowded to his standard" evoke epic imagery, comparing Maximus to a heroic leader (despite being a usurper).
Footnotes as Narrative Tools:
- The footnotes (e.g., debating whether Maximus was governor of Britain) serve to:
- Undermine myths (e.g., Camden’s error).
- Showcase Gibbon’s erudition (citing Greek, Latin, and Christian sources).
- Create a dialogue with past historians, reinforcing his objectivity.
- The footnotes (e.g., debating whether Maximus was governor of Britain) serve to:
Significance of the Passage
Military vs. Civilian Authority:
- The episode illustrates the dominance of the army in late Roman politics—emperors ruled only as long as the military supported them.
- Gratian’s reliance on barbarian generals (like Mellobaudes) backfired, showing the risks of outsourcing Roman power.
The Role of Propaganda:
- Maximus’ claim that his rule was bloodless (except for war casualties) is a classic usurper’s justification, later echoed by figures like Constantine the Great.
- Gibbon, ever the skeptic, questions such claims while acknowledging their political utility.
The Decline of the West:
- The ease of Maximus’ conquest foreshadows later collapses (e.g., the fall of Romulus Augustulus in 476 AD).
- The shift of power from Italy to the provinces (Britain, Gaul) reflects the decentralization of the empire.
Gibbon’s Historiographical Approach:
- He balances multiple sources, even when they conflict (e.g., Zosimus’ negative view of Maximus vs. Sulpicius Severus’ praise).
- His moral judgments (e.g., Gratian’s "degenerate spirit") reflect Enlightenment values—criticizing decadence and praising rational, decisive leadership.
Key Takeaways from the Text Itself
- Maximus’ Calculated Gamble: He knows that staying in Britain is death, so he invades Gaul—a high-risk, high-reward move that pays off.
- Gratian’s Fatal Flaws: His indolence (hunting instead of ruling), poor judgment (trusting traitors), and lack of charisma (deserted by his own troops) seal his fate.
- The Brutal Reality of Power: Loyalty is transactional—Gaul welcomes Maximus because he promises stability, while Gratian offers weakness.
- The Aftermath: Maximus’ selective mercy (killing only "necessary" targets) is a calculated political move, ensuring his rule is seen as legitimate rather than tyrannical.
Conclusion
This excerpt is a microcosm of Gibbon’s broader argument about the decline of Rome: weak emperors, overmighty generals, and provincial rebellions erode the empire from within. His elegant, ironic prose masks a bleak assessment—power in the late Roman world was brutal, precarious, and often short-lived. Maximus’ success is less a triumph of virtue than a demonstration of ruthless pragmatism, a theme Gibbon returns to throughout his magnum opus.