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Excerpt
Excerpt from History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 5, by Edward Gibbon
27 (return) [ See Marsigli, Stato Militare dell’ Imperio<br />
Ottomano, p. 24.]
In the West, the first teachers of the Manichaean theology had<br />
been repulsed by the people, or suppressed by the prince. The<br />
favor and success of the Paulicians in the eleventh and twelfth<br />
centuries must be imputed to the strong, though secret,<br />
discontent which armed the most pious Christians against the<br />
church of Rome. Her avarice was oppressive, her despotism odious;<br />
less degenerate perhaps than the Greeks in the worship of saints<br />
and images, her innovations were more rapid and scandalous: she<br />
had rigorously defined and imposed the doctrine of<br />
transubstantiation: the lives of the Latin clergy were more<br />
corrupt, and the Eastern bishops might pass for the successors of<br />
the apostles, if they were compared with the lordly prelates, who<br />
wielded by turns the crosier, the sceptre, and the sword. Three<br />
different roads might introduce the Paulicians into the heart of<br />
Europe. After the conversion of Hungary, the pilgrims who visited<br />
Jerusalem might safely follow the course of the Danube: in their<br />
journey and return they passed through Philippopolis; and the<br />
sectaries, disguising their name and heresy, might accompany the<br />
French or German caravans to their respective countries. The<br />
trade and dominion of Venice pervaded the coast of the Adriatic,<br />
and the hospitable republic opened her bosom to foreigners of<br />
every climate and religion. Under the Byzantine standard, the<br />
Paulicians were often transported to the Greek provinces of Italy<br />
and Sicily: in peace and war, they freely conversed with<br />
strangers and natives, and their opinions were silently<br />
propagated in Rome, Milan, and the kingdoms beyond the Alps. 28<br />
It was soon discovered, that many thousand Catholics of every<br />
rank, and of either sex, had embraced the Manichaean heresy; and<br />
the flames which consumed twelve canons of Orleans was the first<br />
act and signal of persecution. The Bulgarians, 29 a name so<br />
innocent in its origin, so odious in its application, spread<br />
their branches over the face of Europe. United in common hatred<br />
of idolatry and Rome, they were connected by a form of episcopal<br />
and presbyterian government; their various sects were<br />
discriminated by some fainter or darker shades of theology; but<br />
they generally agreed in the two principles, the contempt of the<br />
Old Testament and the denial of the body of Christ, either on the<br />
cross or in the eucharist. A confession of simple worship and<br />
blameless manners is extorted from their enemies; and so high was<br />
their standard of perfection, that the increasing congregations<br />
were divided into two classes of disciples, of those who<br />
practised, and of those who aspired. It was in the country of the<br />
Albigeois, 30 in the southern provinces of France, that the<br />
Paulicians were most deeply implanted; and the same vicissitudes<br />
of martyrdom and revenge which had been displayed in the<br />
neighborhood of the Euphrates, were repeated in the thirteenth<br />
century on the banks of the Rhone. The laws of the Eastern<br />
emperors were revived by Frederic the Second. The insurgents of<br />
Tephrice were represented by the barons and cities of Languedoc:<br />
Pope Innocent III. surpassed the sanguinary fame of Theodora. It<br />
was in cruelty alone that her soldiers could equal the heroes of<br />
the Crusades, and the cruelty of her priests was far excelled by<br />
the founders of the Inquisition; 31 an office more adapted to<br />
confirm, than to refute, the belief of an evil principle. The<br />
visible assemblies of the Paulicians, or Albigeois, were<br />
extirpated by fire and sword; and the bleeding remnant escaped by<br />
flight, concealment, or Catholic conformity. But the invincible<br />
spirit which they had kindled still lived and breathed in the<br />
Western world. In the state, in the church, and even in the<br />
cloister, a latent succession was preserved of the disciples of<br />
St. Paul; who protested against the tyranny of Rome, embraced the<br />
Bible as the rule of faith, and purified their creed from all the<br />
visions of the Gnostic theology. 3111 The struggles of Wickliff<br />
in England, of Huss in Bohemia, were premature and ineffectual;<br />
but the names of Zuinglius, Luther, and Calvin, are pronounced<br />
with gratitude as the deliverers of nations.
28 (return) [ The introduction of the Paulicians into Italy and<br />
France is amply discussed by Muratori (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii<br />
Aevi, tom. v. dissert. lx. p. 81-152) and Mosheim, (p. 379-382,<br />
419-422.) Yet both have overlooked a curious passage of William<br />
the Apulian, who clearly describes them in a battle between the<br />
Greeks and Normans, A.D. 1040, (in Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital.<br />
tom. v. p. 256:)
Explanation
Detailed Explanation of the Excerpt from The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Volume 5) by Edward Gibbon
This passage from Gibbon’s magnum opus examines the spread and persecution of the Paulicians—a Christian sect with Manichaean and dualist influences—and their role in the broader religious and political conflicts of medieval Europe. Gibbon, an 18th-century Enlightenment historian, approaches the subject with a critical eye toward institutional corruption, religious intolerance, and the cyclical nature of dissent and suppression. Below is a breakdown of the text’s key elements, themes, and literary strategies.
1. Context of the Excerpt
Historical Background
- The Paulicians were a Christian sect that emerged in the 7th century in Armenia and the Byzantine Empire, blending elements of Manichaeism (a dualistic religion positing a struggle between good and evil principles) with a rejection of the established Church’s hierarchy, sacraments, and material wealth.
- By the 11th–13th centuries, their influence spread westward into Europe, particularly through:
- Trade routes (Venice, the Danube).
- Crusader and pilgrim movements (contact between East and West).
- Byzantine migrations (e.g., Greek provinces in Italy and Sicily).
- The Albigeois (or Cathars) of southern France were a later manifestation of similar dualist beliefs, leading to the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) and the rise of the Inquisition.
Gibbon’s Perspective
- Gibbon, a skeptic of religious dogma, frames the Paulicians as rational dissenters against a corrupt and oppressive Roman Catholic Church.
- He draws parallels between the Byzantine persecution of Paulicians and the medieval Catholic suppression of heresy, suggesting a recurring pattern of institutional violence in the name of orthodoxy.
- The passage subtly foreshadows the Protestant Reformation, positioning the Paulicians as spiritual ancestors of figures like Wycliffe, Hus, Luther, and Calvin.
2. Themes in the Excerpt
A. Corruption of the Church
Gibbon contrasts the Paulicians’ ascetic purity with the moral and theological decay of the Roman Church:
- "Her avarice was oppressive, her despotism odious": The Church’s wealth and political power are framed as tyrannical.
- "The lives of the Latin clergy were more corrupt": Clerical abuse (simony, nepotism, luxury) undermined spiritual authority.
- "The lordly prelates, who wielded by turns the crosier, the sceptre, and the sword": The Church’s fusion of religious and secular power is criticized as hypocritical.
B. Spread of Heresy as Resistance
Gibbon presents the Paulicians’ success as a natural reaction to ecclesiastical corruption:
- "The strong, though secret, discontent which armed the most pious Christians against the church of Rome": Dissent is not just theological but political and moral.
- The sect’s spread via trade, pilgrimage, and migration highlights how ideas transcend borders, especially when institutional authority is weak.
C. Violence and Persecution
- "The flames which consumed twelve canons of Orleans": The burning of heretics (1022) marks the beginning of systematic persecution.
- "The cruelty of her priests was far excelled by the founders of the Inquisition": Gibbon implicates the Church in state-sanctioned terror, comparing medieval Europe to Byzantine precedents.
- "The bleeding remnant escaped by flight, concealment, or Catholic conformity": Survival required assimilation or exile, a recurring theme in Gibbon’s narrative of decline.
D. Legacy of Dissent: From Paulicians to Protestants
Gibbon explicitly links the Paulicians to the Protestant Reformation:
- "A latent succession was preserved of the disciples of St. Paul": The true "Pauline" Christianity, in Gibbon’s view, was anti-hierarchical and scripture-based.
- "The names of Zuinglius, Luther, and Calvin, are pronounced with gratitude": The Reformation is cast as a triumph of reason over superstition, fulfilling the Paulicians’ unfinished rebellion.
3. Literary Devices and Style
A. Irony and Sarcasm
- "A name so innocent in its origin, so odious in its application": The term "Bulgarians" (often used pejoratively for heretics) is mocked for its arbitrary demonization.
- "The cruelty of her priests was far excelled by the founders of the Inquisition": The Inquisition, meant to "save souls," is exposed as more barbaric than its targets.
B. Parallelism and Historical Analogies
- Gibbon draws explicit comparisons between:
- Byzantine emperors (e.g., Theodora) and Pope Innocent III.
- The Paulician revolt in Tephrice (9th century) and the Albigensian Crusade (13th century).
- Early Christian martyrs and medieval heretics, suggesting the Church had become the new persecutor.
C. Rhetorical Questions and Understatement
- "The Eastern bishops might pass for the successors of the apostles, if they were compared with the lordly prelates": A backhanded compliment that underscores Western corruption.
- "A confession of simple worship and blameless manners is extorted from their enemies": Even adversaries admit the Paulicians’ virtue, making their persecution seem all the more unjust.
D. Foreshadowing and Teleology
- Gibbon’s narrative suggests historical inevitability:
- The Paulicians’ defeat is temporary; their ideas resurface in the Reformation.
- The Inquisition’s brutality inadvertently strengthens dissent, as repression breeds resistance.
4. Significance of the Passage
A. Gibbon’s Enlightenment Critique
- The excerpt embodies Enlightenment skepticism toward organized religion, portraying the Church as a corrupt, power-hungry institution.
- Gibbon’s secular humanism is evident in his sympathy for the Paulicians, whom he depicts as rationalists ahead of their time.
B. The Cyclical Nature of History
- Gibbon’s theory of decline is applied to the Church: just as Rome fell due to internal decay, the medieval Church’s moral and intellectual stagnation invites rebellion.
- The repetition of persecution (Byzantium → medieval Europe) suggests that power corrupts universally.
C. The Protestant Reformation as Progress
- By tracing a line from the Paulicians to the Reformers, Gibbon legitimizes Protestantism as a return to primitive Christianity, free from "Gnostic visions" (i.e., Catholic dogma).
- This aligns with his broader argument that Europe’s revival came from breaking with Rome’s authority.
D. Relevance to Gibbon’s Central Thesis
- The passage reinforces Decline and Fall’s overarching claim: institutions decline when they abandon virtue for power.
- The Church’s persecution of heretics mirrors Rome’s persecution of Christians, completing a historical irony where the oppressed become the oppressors.
5. Key Takeaways from the Text Itself
The Paulicians as a Threat to Rome’s Authority
- Their rejection of transubstantiation, saints, and images challenged the Church’s sacramental and hierarchical monopoly.
- Their episcopal structure (less hierarchical than Rome’s) appealed to those disillusioned with clerical corruption.
Geopolitical Spread of Heresy
- Trade (Venice), pilgrimage (Danube), and war (Byzantine migrations) facilitated the Paulicians’ infiltration into Europe.
- Gibbon emphasizes cultural exchange as a vehicle for dissent, undermining the Church’s attempts at isolation.
The Inquisition as a Self-Defeating Institution
- "An office more adapted to confirm, than to refute, the belief of an evil principle": The Inquisition’s cruelty proved the Paulicians’ dualist claim that the world was ruled by evil.
The Albigeois as the Paulicians’ Heirs
- The Albigensian Crusade is framed as a repeat of Byzantine persecution, showing how history repeats when institutions fail to reform.
The Reformation as Fulfillment
- The passage ends on an optimistic note: though the Paulicians were crushed, their spirit lived on in the Reformers, who succeeded where they failed.
Conclusion
Gibbon’s excerpt is a masterclass in historical irony, using the Paulicians’ story to critique the hypocrisy of institutional power. His Enlightenment lens portrays heresy not as deviation but as resistance to tyranny, and the Church’s violence as evidence of its moral bankruptcy. The passage’s significance lies in its teleological narrative: the Paulicians’ defeat was not the end but a precursor to the Reformation’s triumph, illustrating Gibbon’s belief in progress through rational dissent.
By blending dry historical detail with sharp rhetorical flourishes, Gibbon ensures that his account is both scholarly and subversive, challenging readers to question the legitimacy of authority—whether imperial or ecclesiastical.