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Excerpt
Excerpt from History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire — Volume 2, by Edward Gibbon
The Conduct Of The Roman Government Towards The Christians,<br />
From The Reign Of Nero To That Of Constantine.
If we seriously consider the purity of the Christian religion, the
sanctity of its moral precepts, and the innocent as well as austere
lives of the greater number of those who during the first ages embraced
the faith of the gospel, we should naturally suppose, that so benevolent
a doctrine would have been received with due reverence, even by the
unbelieving world; that the learned and the polite, however they may
deride the miracles, would have esteemed the virtues, of the new sect;
and that the magistrates, instead of persecuting, would have protected
an order of men who yielded the most passive obedience to the laws,
though they declined the active cares of war and government. If, on the
other hand, we recollect the universal toleration of Polytheism, as it
was invariably maintained by the faith of the people, the incredulity of
philosophers, and the policy of the Roman senate and emperors, we are at
a loss to discover what new offence the Christians had committed, what
new provocation could exasperate the mild indifference of antiquity,
and what new motives could urge the Roman princes, who beheld without
concern a thousand forms of religion subsisting in peace under their
gentle sway, to inflict a severe punishment on any part of their
subjects, who had chosen for themselves a singular but an inoffensive
mode of faith and worship.
The religious policy of the ancient world seems to have assumed a more
stern and intolerant character, to oppose the progress of Christianity.
About fourscore years after the death of Christ, his innocent disciples
were punished with death by the sentence of a proconsul of the most
amiable and philosophic character, and according to the laws of
an emperor distinguished by the wisdom and justice of his general
administration. The apologies which were repeatedly addressed to the
successors of Trajan are filled with the most pathetic complaints, that
the Christians, who obeyed the dictates, and solicited the liberty,
of conscience, were alone, among all the subjects of the Roman empire,
excluded from the common benefits of their auspicious government. The
deaths of a few eminent martyrs have been recorded with care; and from
the time that Christianity was invested with the supreme power, the
governors of the church have been no less diligently employed in
displaying the cruelty, than in imitating the conduct, of their Pagan
adversaries. To separate (if it be possible) a few authentic as well as
interesting facts from an undigested mass of fiction and error, and
to relate, in a clear and rational manner, the causes, the extent, the
duration, and the most important circumstances of the persecutions to
which the first Christians were exposed, is the design of the present
chapter. *
Explanation
Detailed Explanation of Gibbon’s Excerpt from The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
1. Context of the Source
Edward Gibbon’s The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–1789) is a monumental work of Enlightenment historiography that examines the fall of Rome from the 2nd century CE to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Volume 2, from which this excerpt is taken, focuses on the rise of Christianity and its complex relationship with the Roman state.
Gibbon, a skeptic with a critical view of organized religion, approaches the topic with a mix of admiration for Christian ethics and skepticism toward its historical claims. His work reflects Enlightenment ideals—rational inquiry, skepticism of dogma, and an emphasis on empirical evidence. This passage introduces his discussion of why the Romans persecuted Christians, despite their seemingly harmless nature.
2. Summary of the Excerpt
Gibbon presents a paradox:
- On one hand, Christianity appears to be a benevolent, morally pure, and politically harmless religion. Its followers were law-abiding (though pacifist), and its ethical teachings were admirable. One would expect such a faith to be tolerated, if not respected, by Roman society.
- On the other hand, Rome was famously tolerant of polytheism, allowing countless cults to coexist. Yet, Christians—despite their inoffensive behavior—were singled out for persecution.
Gibbon then notes that:
- Persecution began early (under Nero, c. 64 CE, and formalized under Trajan, c. 112 CE).
- Christian apologists (early defenders of the faith) complained that they were denied the same rights as other Roman subjects.
- Later, when Christianity became dominant, Christian writers exaggerated Pagan cruelty while imitating Pagan methods of suppression (a subtle critique of hypocrisy).
- His goal in the chapter is to separate historical fact from myth regarding the persecutions.
3. Key Themes
A. The Paradox of Persecution
Gibbon frames the persecution of Christians as illogical given:
- Christian morality – They preached love, humility, and obedience to law (though they refused military service and imperial cult worship).
- Roman religious tolerance – Rome absorbed foreign gods (e.g., Isis, Mithras) without issue. Why not Christianity?
His rhetorical question—"what new offence had the Christians committed?"—highlights the arbitrariness of their suppression.
B. The Shift from Tolerance to Intolerance
Gibbon suggests that Rome’s traditional polytheistic tolerance gave way to hostility because:
- Monotheistic exclusivity – Christians rejected all other gods, which Romans saw as impiety (a threat to pax deorum, the peace with the gods).
- Political suspicions – Their refusal to worship the emperor (a civic duty) made them seem subversive.
- Social separation – Christians formed tight-knit communities, leading to rumors of cannibalism (Eucharist), incest (brother/sister terminology), and sedition.
C. Historical Distortion & Christian Hypocrisy
Gibbon critiques:
- Exaggerated martyrdom accounts – Later Christian writers (e.g., Eusebius) inflated stories of persecution for propaganda.
- Christian imitation of Pagan oppression – Once in power (under Constantine and later), Christians persecuted Pagans and heretics in the same way they had been persecuted.
This reflects Gibbon’s Enlightenment skepticism toward religious narratives.
D. The Role of Power & Policy
Gibbon hints that persecution was not just religious but political:
- Nero scapegoated Christians for the Great Fire of Rome (64 CE).
- Trajan’s rescript (112 CE) established a legal precedent: Christians were not to be sought out, but if accused and unwilling to recant, they were to be executed.
- Later emperors (Decius, Valerian, Diocletian) used persecution to reinforce traditional Roman values in times of crisis.
4. Literary Devices & Stylistic Features
Gibbon’s prose is elegant, ironic, and persuasive, using:
A. Rhetorical Questions
- "What new offence had the Christians committed?"
- "What new provocation could exasperate the mild indifference of antiquity?" → These force the reader to confront the illogic of persecution.
B. Antithesis (Contrast)
- "The purity of the Christian religion" vs. "the universal toleration of Polytheism"
- "Passive obedience to the laws" vs. "declined the active cares of war and government" → Highlights the contradiction between Christian behavior and Roman reaction.
C. Irony & Sarcasm
- "The most amiable and philosophic character" (referring to Pliny the Younger, who executed Christians) → dripping with irony.
- "The governors of the church… were no less diligently employed in displaying the cruelty, than in imitating the conduct, of their Pagan adversaries" → subtle condemnation of Christian hypocrisy.
D. Parallelism & Repetition
- "The learned and the polite… the magistrates… the Roman senate and emperors" → Creates a rhythmic, cumulative effect, emphasizing the unanimity of Roman tolerance—making Christian persecution stand out as an anomaly.
E. Historical Detachment & Skepticism
- "To separate… a few authentic facts from an undigested mass of fiction and error" → Gibbon positions himself as a rational historian, sifting through biased sources.
5. Significance of the Passage
A. Gibbon’s Argument Against Religious Fanaticism
Gibbon suggests that persecution arises from dogmatism, whether Pagan or Christian. His work implicitly warns against religious intolerance in his own time (18th-century Europe, still marked by sectarian conflicts).
B. Challenge to Christian Triumphalism
Many 18th-century historians (and Christians) saw the rise of Christianity as divinely ordained. Gibbon demythologizes this, presenting it as a historical process influenced by politics, chance, and human nature.
C. Influence on Modern Historiography
Gibbon’s skeptical, evidence-based approach set a standard for later historians. His separation of myth from fact in early Christian history remains influential in secular and critical religious studies.
D. Enlightenment Critique of Power & Religion
The passage reflects Enlightenment ideals:
- Reason over dogma (questioning why a "benevolent" religion was persecuted).
- Skepticism of institutional religion (noting how Christians, once powerful, repeated Pagan oppression).
- Emphasis on human agency (persecution was a political tool, not just a religious conflict).
6. Conclusion: Gibbon’s Perspective in the Excerpt
Gibbon does not deny Christian virtue but questions why it provoked such hostility. His explanation lies in:
- Cultural clash – Christian monotheism was radically different from Roman polytheism.
- Political utility – Persecution was a tool of state control, especially in crises.
- Human nature – Both Pagans and Christians were capable of intolerance when in power.
His detached, ironic tone invites readers to question historical narratives, particularly those shaped by religious bias. The passage remains a masterclass in historical analysis, blending rhetorical brilliance with skeptical inquiry.
Final Thought
Gibbon’s excerpt is not just about why Romans persecuted Christians, but about how power, religion, and history intersect. His work challenges us to look beyond surface explanations and consider the complex, often irrational forces that shape human events.